细水雾作用下气体射流火焰熄灭的临界条件

设计了开放空间条件下细水雾扑灭气体射流火的模拟实验,发现可燃气体流率大小和火焰上升力大小都直接影响了灭火成功与否,进而通过理论分析和计算分别得出了细水雾灭射流火的临界条件,细水雾的吸热功率大于11%～15%射流火的火源功率时可实现灭火,射流上升力与细水雾下压力的比值小于1.0～2.8时细水雾也能够通过克服火焰上升力进而实现灭火,实验结果也显示,相同气体流率情况下气体射流上升力与细水雾下压力的比值越大则灭火时间越长.     

受限空间中细水雾灭火的准稳态模型

通过受限空间中大量细水雾灭火实验，总结出预测细水雾系统灭火效果的准稳态模型。该模型是针对细水雾扑灭有障碍火的情况而发展的，火焰的熄灭主要是由于燃料燃烧耗氧和细水雾汽化稀释造成氧气浓度的降低而导致的，忽略了细水雾与火焰的直接作用，模型基于能量守衡，要求输入以下参数：火源功率、受限空间的几何结构、通风口面积和细水雾施加流量，通过模型预测出稳态时受限空间的温度和氧气浓度，进而可以确定临界火源的尺度(功率大小)，同时能准确预测较大功率范围火的熄灭时间。     

细水雾与液体燃料火焰相互作用的小尺度实验研究及简化模型

细水雾灭火技术是可以替代哈龙灭火剂的绿色灭火技术。以此为工程背景,开展了细水雾与液体燃料火焰相互作用的小尺度实验研究,结果表明:预燃时间、喷雾气压、细水雾气源种类等参数对灭火过程有重要影响。细水雾抑制熄灭液体燃料火焰的主要机理是燃料表面冷却效应。建立的液体燃料平均温度零维简化模型与实验结果吻合较好。     

细水雾熄灭K类火灾的全尺寸模拟实验

利用ISO 9705全尺寸多功能热释放速率测试仪在开放空间研究了细水雾作用下K类火灾的发展过程,实验中对细水雾作用下食用油火的温度、热释放速率及烟气的主要特性参数变化规律进行了测量与研究,分析了预燃时间对灭火有效性的影响,系统地阐述了细水雾作用下K类火灾关键特性参数的变化规律．实验发现,细水雾可以有效地抑制K类火灾的发展,在其作用下火焰温度及热释放速率快速降低,并可以有效地冲刷烟气,降低一氧化碳及二氧化碳的浓度,提高氧气的浓度及火场能见度．同时利用稳定火源热释放速率模型计算了K类火灾发展阶段的热释放速率,与实验测量结果比较发现,模型可准确地预测K类火灾发展阶段的热释放速率的变化规律．     

自然通风房间内油池面积变化对细水雾灭火效果影响的数值模拟

采用大涡模拟、混合物分数模拟和欧拉一拉格朗日粒子运动描述法研究了不同油池面积条件下自然通风房间内细水雾与油池火焰作用过程，分析了加入水雾对着火房间速度场和温度场的影响，推导出油池火焰根部空气卷吸速率与油池尺寸的关系，探讨了细水雾在火羽流的不同区域内的灭火机理。模拟结果表明：加入水雾不仅降低了着火房间热烟气层温度，而且显著影响了房间内速度场，在间歇火焰区和浮力羽流区以及热烟气层主要发挥细水雾的蒸发冷却作用，在恒定火焰区则是蒸发冷却和隔氧窒息共同作用，油池火根部的空气卷吸速率与油池边长的四次方成正比。     

细水雾抑制淬火油池火的小尺度实验

通过小尺度模拟实验对两种不同喷头所产生的细水雾抑制熄灭淬火油池火的研究发现,细水雾施加之初对淬火油池火有明显的强化作用,粒径和速度较大的细水雾强化燃烧的程度较大但持续的时间较短,且粒径和速度较大的细水雾抑制熄灭淬火油池火的效率较高.实验观测和分析表明,粒径和速度较小的细水雾主要通过卷吸空气强化燃烧,其灭火机理主要是火焰冷却和燃料表面冷却,粒径和速度较大的细水雾则主要通过共沸强化燃烧,其灭火机理主要是燃料表面冷却.     

受限空间内细水雾抑制熄灭火焰过程中一氧化碳的生成率

细水雾抑制熄灭火焰过程中一氧化碳的浓度是评价细水雾灭火系统安全可靠性的一个重要参数.本文通过受限空间内细水雾抑制熄灭障碍火的模拟实验研究,发现细水雾抑制熄灭火焰过程中一氧化碳生成率存在两种控制模式,即燃料控制模式和细水雾流量控制模式.实验结果表明,在燃料控制模式下,一氧化碳生成率随着燃料流量的增大而增大;在细水雾控制模式下,一氧化碳生成率随着细水雾流量的增大而增大.为了获得两种控制模式的临界转变条件,对燃料控制模式和细水雾控制模式的临界工况进行水蒸气含量分析.通过理论分析,得到一氧化碳生成率控制模式转变的水蒸气含量临界范围与 Suh and Atryeya 理论基本一致,即空气中水蒸气质量分数达到25%~65.5%时,水蒸气对火焰的作用从化学作用转为物理作用,一氧化碳生成率控制模式开始转变     

细水雾抑制熄灭固体火的机理

利用三维激光粒子动态分析仪对细水雾喷嘴的雾场特性进行了测量,选择两种典型固体可燃物作为燃料,研究细水雾抑制熄灭固体火的过程,重点考察细水雾扑灭固体火的灭火机理.实验结果表明,细水雾扑灭固体火主要依赖细水雾对燃料表面的冷却吸热.相同灭火条件下,表面碳化型固体比非碳化型固体可燃物更容易被细水雾扑灭,但是前者在明火熄灭后,表面及内部残余炭仍能够维持较长的氧化燃烧,因此需要用更多的冷却时间来阻止复燃.细水雾通量对固体灭火时间的影响满足边际效用递减规律,并存在一个最佳值,即可利用最小细水雾通量获得最大灭火效率.     

细水雾与油雾火焰相互作用的实验及数值模拟研究

开展了细水雾抑制熄灭燃油油雾火的实验研究,并在试验研究的基础上,利用大型计算流体力学商业软件模拟研究细水雾与油雾火焰的相互作用。研究表明,细水雾熄灭油雾火的机理是降低可燃物与氧气混合浓度比和动力学效应、火焰冷却与衰减热辐射。在细水雾与油雾火焰相互作用动态过程中模拟计算与实验有一定程度的吻合;模拟计算表明细水雾有效灭火的前提是快速穿透火焰。     

超细水雾抑制受限空间木材燃烧的实验研究

基于木材是火灾中常见的可燃物之一,通过搭建超细水雾抑制受限空间木材燃烧的小尺寸实验平台,研究了超细水雾抑制受限空间木材燃烧的有效性及影响因素.施加超细水雾后,木材的热释放速率和O2的下降速率增大,CO2的生成量增大到固定值时逐渐趋于平稳,这表明超细水雾可以有效降低木材的热释放速率,抑制木材的燃烧.超细水雾抑制木材燃烧的效果依赖于雾通量、预燃时间、施加时间等因素.雾通量充足时预燃时间越长,火焰越容易熄灭;雾通量不足时,超细水雾无法抑制木材的燃烧;预燃时间一定时,雾通量越大,超细水雾抑制木材火焰的效果越好;雾通量和预燃时间一定时,施加超细水雾的时间越长,木材表面越不易有阴燃现象,抑制木材火焰的效果越好.     

Ash-forming elements in four Scandinavian wood species. Part 1: Summer harvest

Woody biomass in Finland and Sweden comprises mainly four wood species: spruce, pine, birch and aspen. To study the ash, which may cause problems for the combustion device, one tree of each species were cut down and prepared for comparisons with fuel samples. Well-defined samples of wood, bark and foliage were analyzed on 11 ash-forming elements: Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, Na, K, P, S and Cl. The ash content in the wood tissues (0.2–0.7%) was low compared to the ash content in the bark tissues (1.9–6.4%) and the foliage (2.4–7.7%). The woods’ content of ash-forming elements was consequently low; the highest contents were of Ca (410–1340 ppm) and K (200–1310), followed by Mg (70–290), Mn (15–240) and P (0–350). Present in the wood was also Si (50–190), S (50–200) and Cl (30–110). The bark tissues showed much higher element contents; Ca (4800–19,100 ppm) and K (1600–6400) were the dominating elements, followed by Mg (210–2400), P (210–1200), Mn (110–1100) and S (310–750), but the Cl contents (40–330) were only moderately higher in the bark than in the wood. The young foliage (shoots and deciduous leaves) had the highest K (7100–25,000 ppm), P (1600–5300) and S (1100–2600) contents of all tissues, while the shoots of spruce had the highest Cl contents (820–1360) and its needles the highest Si content (5000–11,300). This paper presented a new approach in fuel characterization: the method excludes the presence of impurities, and focus on different categories of plant tissues. This made it possible to discuss the contents of ash element in a wide spectrum of fuel-types, which are of large importance for the energy production in Finland and Sweden.     

NEXT GENERATION ENGINEERED MATERIALS FOR ULTRA SUPERCRITICAL STEAM TURBINES

正1 ABSTRACT To reduce the effect of global warming on our climate,the levels of CO2emissions should be reduced.One way to do this is to increase the efficiency of electricity production from fossil fuels.This will in turn reduce the amount of CO2emissions for a given power output.Using US practice for efficiency calculations,then a move from a typical US plant running at 37%efficiency to a 760℃/38.5 MPa(1 400/5 580 psi)plant running at 48%efficiency would reduce CO2emissions by 170kg/MW.hr or 25%.     

Performance assessment of some ice TES systems

In this paper, a performance assessment of four main types of ice storage techniques for space cooling purposes, namely ice slurry systems, ice-on-coil systems (both internal and external melt), and encapsulated ice systems is conducted. A detailed analysis, coupled with a case study based on the literature data, follows. The ice making techniques are compared on the basis of energy and exergy performance criteria including charging, discharging and storage efficiencies, which make up the ice storage and retrieval process. Losses due to heat leakage and irreversibilities from entropy generation are included. A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with R134a as the working fluid provides the cooling load, while the analysis is performed in both a full storage and partial storage process, with comparisons between these two. In the case of full storage, the energy efficiencies associated with the charging and discharging processes are well over 98% in all cases, while the exergy efficiencies ranged from 46% to 76% for the charging cycle and 18% to 24% for the discharging cycle. For the partial storage systems, all energy and exergy efficiencies were slightly less than that for full storage, due to the increasing effect wall heat leakage has on the decreased storage volume and load. The results show that energy analyses alone do not provide much useful insight into system behavior, since the vast majority of losses in all processes are a result of entropy generation which results from system irreversibilities.     

Aerodynamic performance effects of leading-edge geometry in gas-turbine blades

The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the advantages of the direct surface-curvature distribution blade-design method, originally proposed by Korakianitis, for the leading-edge design of turbine blades, and by extension for other types of airfoil shapes. The leading edge shape is critical in the blade design process, and it is quite difficult to completely control with inverse, semi-inverse or other direct-design methods. The blade-design method is briefly reviewed, and then the effort is concentrated on smoothly blending the leading edge shape (circle or ellipse, etc.) with the main part of the blade surface, in a manner that avoids leading-edge flow-disturbance and flow-separation regions. Specifically in the leading edge region we return to the second-order (parabolic) construction line coupled with a revised smoothing equation between the leading-edge shape and the main part of the blade. The Hodson–Dominy blade has been used as an example to show the ability of this blade-design method to remove leading-edge separation bubbles in gas turbine blades and other airfoil shapes that have very sharp changes in curvature near the leading edge. An additional gas turbine blade example has been used to illustrate the ability of this method to design leading edge shapes that avoid leading-edge separation bubbles at off-design conditions. This gas turbine blade example has inlet flow angle 0°, outlet flow angle −64.3°, and tangential lift coefficient 1.045, in a region of parameters where the leading edge shape is critical for the overall blade performance. Computed results at incidences of −10°,   −5°,   +5°,   +10° are used to illustrate the complete removal of leading edge flow-disturbance regions, thus minimizing the possibility of leading-edge separation bubbles, while concurrently minimizing the stagnation pressure drop from inlet to outlet. These results using two difficult example cases of leading edge geometries illustrate the superiority and utility of this blade-design method when compared with other direct or inverse blade-design methods.     

Effect of co-cultivation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with Azotobacter chroococcum on hydrogen production

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cc124 and Azotobacter chroococcum bacteria were co-cultured with a series of volume ratios and under a variety of light densities to determine the optimal culture conditions and to investigate the mechanism by which co-cultivation improves H₂ yield. The results demonstrated that the optimal culture conditions for the highest H₂ production of the combined system were a 1:40 vol ratio of bacterial cultures to algal cultures under 200 μE m^?2 s^?1. Under these conditions, the maximal H₂ yield was 255 μmol mg^?1 Chl, which was approximately 15.9-fold of the control. The reasons for the improvement in H₂ yield included decreased O₂ content, enhanced algal growth, and increased H₂ase activity and starch content of the combined system.     

Natural-gas fueled spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engine performance and emissions

Natural gas is a fossil fuel that has been used and investigated extensively for use in spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engines. Compared with conventional gasoline engines, SI engines using natural gas can run at higher compression ratios, thus producing higher thermal efficiencies but also increased nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions, while producing lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO). These engines also produce relatively less power than gasoline-fueled engines because of the convergence of one or more of three factors: a reduction in volumetric efficiency due to natural-gas injection in the intake manifold; the lower stoichiometric fuel/air ratio of natural gas compared to gasoline; and the lower equivalence ratio at which these engines may be run in order to reduce NO_x emissions. High NO_x emissions, especially at high loads, reduce with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). However, EGR rates above a maximum value result in misfire and erratic engine operation. Hydrogen gas addition increases this EGR threshold significantly. In addition, hydrogen increases the flame speed of the natural gas-hydrogen mixture. Power levels can be increased with supercharging or turbocharging and intercooling. Natural gas is used to power CI engines via the dual-fuel mode, where a high-cetane fuel is injected along with the natural gas in order to provide a source of ignition for the charge. Thermal efficiency levels compared with normal diesel-fueled CI-engine operation are generally maintained with dual-fuel operation, and smoke levels are reduced significantly. At the same time, lower NO_x and CO₂ emissions, as well as higher HC and CO emissions compared with normal CI-engine operation at low and intermediate loads are recorded. These trends are caused by the low charge temperature and increased ignition delay, resulting in low combustion temperatures. Another factor is insufficient penetration and distribution of the pilot fuel in the charge, resulting in a lack of ignition centers. EGR admission at low and intermediate loads increases combustion temperatures, lowering unburned HC and CO emissions. Larger pilot fuel quantities at these load levels and hydrogen gas addition can also help increase combustion efficiency. Power output is lower at certain conditions than diesel-fueled engines, for reasons similar to those affecting power output of SI engines. In both cases the power output can be maintained with direct injection. Overall, natural gas can be used in both engine types; however further refinement and optimization of engines and fuel-injection systems is needed.     

Hydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceous materials using concentrated solar energy – V. Reactor modeling,optimization, and scale-up

A chemical reactor for the steam-gasification of carbonaceous particles (e.g. coal, coke) is considered for using concentrated solar radiation as the energy source of high-temperature process heat. A two-phase reactor model that couples radiative, convective, and conductive heat transfer to the chemical kinetics is applied to optimize the reactor geometrical configuration and operational parameters (feedstock's initial particle size, feeding rates, and solar power input) for maximum reaction extent and solar-to-chemical energy conversion efficiency of a 5 kW prototype reactor and its scale-up to 300 kW. For the 300 kW reactor, complete reaction extent is predicted for an initial feedstock particle size up to 35 μm at residence times of less than 10 s and peak temperatures of 1818 K, yielding high-quality syngas with a calorific content that has been solar-upgraded by 19% over that of the petcoke gasified.     

Assessment methods of material ageing using Sdobyrev''s creep rupture model

The physical aspects of the activation energy, in higher and high temperatures, of the metal creep process were examined. The research results of creep-rupture in a uniaxial stress state and the criterion of creep-rupture in biaxial stress states, at two temperatures, are then presented. For these studies creep-rupture, taking case iron as an example the energy and pseudoenergy activation was determined. For complex stress states the criterion of creep-rupture was taken to be Sdobyrev's, i.e. σ_red = σ₁ β + (1 − β)σ_i, where: σ₁-maximal principal stress, σ_i-stress intensity, β-material constant (at variable temperature β = β(T)). The methods of assessment of the material ageing grade are given in percentages of ageing of new material in the following mechanical properties: 1) creep strength in uniaxial stress state, 2) activation energy in uniaxial stress state, 3) criterion creep strength in complex stress states, 4) activation pseudoenergy in complex stress states. The methods 1) and 3) are the relatively simplest because they result from experimental investigations only at nominal temperature of the structure work, however, for methods 2) and 4) it is necessary to perform the experimental investigations at least at two temperatures.     

Production of hydrogen from sewage biosolids in a continuously fed bioreactor: Effect of hydraulic retention time and sparging

Hydrogen was produced from primary sewage biosolids via mesophilic anaerobic fermentation in a continuously fed bioreactor. Prior to fermentation the sewage biosolids were heated to 70 °C for 1 h to inactivate methanogens and during fermentation a cellulose degrading enzyme was added to improve substrate availability. Hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 18, 24, 36 and 48 h were evaluated for the duration of hydrogen production. Without sparging a hydraulic retention time of 24 h resulted in the longest period of hydrogen production (3 days), during which a hydrogen yield of 21.9 L H₂ kg⁻¹ VS added to the bioreactor was achieved. Methods of preventing the decline of hydrogen production during continuous fermentation were evaluated. Of the techniques evaluated using nitrogen gas to sparge the bioreactor contents proved to be more effective than flushing just the headspace of the bioreactor. Sparging at 0.06 L L min⁻¹ successfully prevented a decline in hydrogen production and resulted in a yield of 27.0  L H₂ kg⁻¹ VS added, over a period of greater than 12 days or 12 HRT. The use of sparging also delayed the build up of acetic acid in the bioreactor, suggesting that it serves to inhibit homoacetogenesis and thus maintain hydrogen production.     

汽轮机数字电液调节系统挂闸异常的技术完善

分析了200MW汽轮机数字电液调节系统在运行中存在的挂闸异常问题,采取了相应的技术处理措施,且运行实践效果良好。