我国城市地区癌症筛查项目人员对筛查工作意愿倾向的多中心调查及政策建议

目的 基于癌症筛查实际供方角度,从工作人员主观感受及意愿层面评价癌症筛查项目的可持续性。方法 2014-2015年,基于城市癌症早诊早治项目,在16个省份项目点选取2013-2015年所有承担项目的医院、CDC和社区卫生服务中心,采用纸质问卷和网络调查开展访谈,对象包括宏观管理人员、具体项目管理人员和一线工作人员等。结果 最终完成访谈4 626份,访谈对象总体认为参加项目的最大收获在于社会价值感的提升（63.6%）、当地影响力（35.9%）及专业技能提升（30.6%）等;最大困难在于社会物质激励不够所致工作积极性低（30.9%）、信息采集口径不一致（28.3%）、部门间协调（24.4%）和机构间沟通衔接困难（23.5%）等。当单项筛查服务劳务补偿约50元时,工作人员会考虑加班工作。63.7%的受访者有长期筛查服务意愿,主要原因：可通过项目提升个人/团队在当地影响口碑（48.7%）、通过项目提升个人/团队专业技能（43.1%）等;无服务意愿者主要担心工作量超负荷（59.8%）、对日常工作的干扰（49.8%）等。结论 收获与困难相关结果提示,若要长期可持续性开展癌症筛查工作,建议加强项目内荣誉激励、对外宣传及专业能力建设,根据具体情况提高劳务补偿。服务意愿结果则提示,应从政府和领导层面加强信息化建设及机构/部门间协调,机构内应合理协调筛查项目与日常工作。     

癌症筛查项目人员组成及工作负荷的多中心调查及建议

目的 从癌症筛查服务人员组成和工作服务负荷,了解癌症筛查项目的可持续性。方法 2014－2015年基于城市癌症早诊早治项目,在16个省份项目点选取2013－2015年所有承担项目的医院（71.1%为三甲医院）、CDC和社区中心,采用纸质问卷和网络调查,访谈对象包括宏观管理人员、具体项目管理人员和一线工作人员等,内容包括不同专业人员配备情况、工作人员工作负荷及补偿情况等。结果 完成合格调查4 626份,年龄（37.7±9.5）岁,男性占31.0%。省份间投入人员数量差别较大,以2012年加入项目的8个可比省份为例,副高及以上人员数量为6人（重庆）至43人（北京）不等;细化不同专业间差别也较大。不同机构来源工作人员中,医院（n=2 192）、CDC（n=431）和社区中心人员（n=1 990）自报因参加项目工作量增加所致压力较大的占比依次为19.9%、24.6%和34.1%（P<0.001）。对应不同项目角色分类人员,宏观管理（n=227）、项目具体管理人员（n=376）和一线工作人员（n=3 908）自报压力较大的比例依次为23.6%、22.3%和28.2%（P<0.001）。3 244名（73.8%）工作人员为项目工作加班获得报酬或补偿,其中以与工作量挂钩的劳务费（67.5%）和工作量不挂钩劳务费（26.6%）形式最多见。结论 省份间人员配置情况提示各现场的组织模式不同,客观能力可能存在差异。若要长期可持续性开展癌症筛查工作,建议筛查工作趋向常规化,减轻社区和一线工作人员压力,提高物质和非物质激励,可设专职人员。     

我国城市居民癌症筛查服务利用现况及服务支付意愿分析

目的 了解未参加过城市癌症早诊早治项目及其他国家级癌症筛查项目的城市居民对癌症筛查服务利用现况及对癌症筛查费用的支付意愿情况,从潜在筛查服务需求方的角度探索癌症筛查工作的可持续性。方法 2014-2015年基于城市癌症早诊早治项目的16个省份项目点,采用多中心横断面方便抽样方法对目标人群开展纸质问卷调查;采用χ²检验进行单因素分析、二元logistic回归进行多因素分析。结果 最终完成合格调查16 394人。调查对象中做过癌症筛查的居民占12.1%（1 984人）;对癌症筛查服务利用进行多因素分析显示,年龄为60~69岁（OR=1.27,95% CI：1.13~1.43）、女性（男性OR=0.56,95% CI：0.50~0.62）、学历偏高者（高中/中专OR=1.51,95% CI：1.35~1.70;大学及以上OR=2.10,95% CI：1.36~3.25）、事业单位等和企业单位等职业的人群（企业人员等OR=1.32,95% CI：1.06~1.64;事业单位人员等OR=2.85,95% CI：2.26~3.59）、收入偏高者（6~15万元OR=1.55,95% CI：1.39~1.73;≥ 15万元OR=2.57,95% CI：2.09~3.15）、城镇职工医疗保险/公费医疗（OR=1.15,95% CI：1.01~1.32）以及城镇居民医疗保险/商业保险（OR=1.01,95% CI：0.84~1.22）的人群对癌症筛查服务利用率更高。在不考虑费用等因素的情况下,65.8%（10 795人）的调查对象愿意接受癌症筛查服务,且做过癌症筛查的居民对癌症筛查的接受度更高（P<0.05）。对于多种癌症联合筛查,61.2%（10 038人）的居民愿意付费,多因素分析显示,年龄为40~59岁（60~69岁OR=0.80,95% CI：0.74~0.87）、企事业单位等职业人群（企业人员OR=1.32,95% CI：1.18~1.47;事业单位人员OR=1.76,95% CI：1.56~1.98）、收入偏高者（6~15万OR=1.51,95% CI：1.40~1.63;≥ 15万OR=1.95,95% CI：1.60~2.38）及做过癌症筛查人群（OR=2.18,95% CI：1.94~2.46）的支付意愿更高。结论 居民癌症筛查服务利用仍有较大的提升空间;年龄、性别、学历、职业、收入、医保是癌症筛查服务利用的主要影响因素;居民有一定的支付意愿,但支付额度有限,年龄、职业、收入、癌症筛查服务利用是居民支付意愿的主要影响因素。     

我国城市地区人群癌症筛查需求调查分析

目的 了解未参加过城市癌症早诊早治项目及其他国家级癌症筛查项目的城市社区居民对癌症筛查服务的接受意愿及对服务模式细化需求,从筛查潜在服务需求方的角度探索癌症筛查工作可持续性的影响要素。方法 基于城市癌症早诊早治项目的16个省份现场,采用方便抽样对当地40～69岁居民开展问卷调查,内容包括筛查服务需求意向等。结果 最终完成合格访谈16 394份,调查对象年龄（53.8±8.0）岁,男性占44.6%。若不考虑费用等因素,4 831名（29.5%）居民对癌症筛查服务没有需求,常见原因包括要等身体出现异常后才行动（61.8%）、所在单位已提供类似体检（36.8%）、自己不先做风险评估而直接去做筛查（33.0%）等。10 795名（65.8%）居民对癌症筛查服务有需求,但对筛查机构类型选择倾向不同：43.7%希望提供筛查的机构是综合性医院,36.5%希望是肿瘤专科医院;居民对于机构级别选择也有差异：61.4%的居民希望提供筛查的机构级别越高越好,36.4%则认为机构达到一定级别即可。关于筛查流程,61.5%未接收过筛查的居民认同“先问卷评估阳性后再临床检查”的模式。结论 大多数居民对癌症筛查服务有需求且倾向筛查机构级别越高越好。应普及癌症筛查知识宣传,并合理引导居民对筛查机构类型及级别的选择期望,建议加强基层筛查能力建设,合理分流居民对筛查机构的选择意愿。     

我国城市居民对多种癌症联合筛查的频率倾向及支付意愿

目的 了解我国城市居民对常见癌种（肺、胃、食管、肝、结直肠和乳腺癌）联合筛查的频率倾向及支付意愿。方法 2012-2014年基于城市癌症早诊早治项目的13个省份现场,面对面调查不同付费假设下,实际参加项目的居民倾向的筛查频率、对长期推行每3年1次联合筛查的支付意愿和支付额度等。结果 最终完成合格访谈31 029人,年龄（55.2±7.5）岁,近5年家庭人均年收入M值为2.5万元。对于多种癌症联合筛查服务,若完全免费,93.9%的居民选择每1~3年1次的频率;完全自费时对应的比例为67.3%。假设将每3年1次的联合筛查长期推行且需个人部分付费时,76.7%的居民愿意付费,但支付额度超过500元者（联合筛查人均费用约1 500元）仅占11.2%。其余23.3%无支付意愿者主要认为费用难以承受（71.7%）和认为没必要筛查（40.4%）。结论 我国城市参加过癌症筛查的居民对多种癌症联合筛查倾向"高频"模式,提示大范围推广的潜在接受程度较高,但需科学评价与正确引导。尽管多数居民对联合筛查有支付意愿但支付额度有限,提示应加强居民对自我健康的责任管理意识,建立筛查服务共付机制时应设置合理比例。     

青海省西宁市医院临床医护人员2016－2017年度流感疫苗接种情况及影响因素分析

目的 了解青海省西宁市临床医护人员2016-2017年度流感疫苗的接种情况及影响因素,初步探索推动西宁市临床医护人员流感疫苗接种措施。方法 随机抽取西宁市4家三级医院,在知情同意的原则下自愿参与完成自填式问卷调查,并访谈医院相关负责人。结果 西宁市三级医院临床医护人员2016-2017年度流感疫苗接种率为5.14%（95%CI：4.80%~5.49%）,多因素分析显示,流感疫苗优先推荐接种人群、接种频次,接种效果的知晓以及职称是主要影响因素。接种组向他人推荐流感疫苗的意愿高于未接种组（χ²=99.57,P<0.001）。结论 西宁市医院临床医护人员流感疫苗接种率低,主要与流感疫苗的认知不足有关。应开展宣传教育,充分发挥示范和影响作用。     

男男性行为人群HIV暴露后预防服务的使用意愿调查

目的 分析MSM对HIV暴露后预防（PEP）服务的使用意愿及其相关因素。方法 采用横断面调查方法,2019年9-11月通过“i卫士”微信公众号招募年龄≥18岁、最近6个月发生同性肛交或口交的男性为研究对象。结果 研究对象MSM共1 517人,听说过PEP服务的研究对象占72.5%（1 100/1 517）,PEP服务的使用意愿为87.9%（1 333/1 517）。多因素logistic分析结果显示,更愿意使用PEP服务的因素包括年龄>25岁（OR=1.807,95%CI：1.090~2.995）、曾经做过HIV检测（OR=1.953,95%CI：1.171~3.256）、至少了解1条PEP知识（OR=2.163,95%CI：1.468~3.186）;不了解性伴HIV感染状况者（OR=0.602,95%CI：0.407~0.890）的PEP服务的使用意愿较低。在听说过PEP服务的MSM中,更愿意使用PEP服务的因素包括居住地为浙江省（OR=1.942,95%CI：1.097~3.438）、年龄>25岁（OR=2.431,95%CI：1.331~4.439）、至少了解1条PEP知识（OR=3.714,95%CI：1.532~9.007）、通过MSM社区组织/志愿者/卫生专业机构了解PEP服务（OR=1.902,95%CI：1.096~3.301）。结论 MSM对PEP服务的使用意愿较高,年龄、PEP知识、是否了解性伴HIV感染状况是其相关因素。MSM社区组织、志愿者及卫生专业机构是开展PEP服务宣传和推广的重要途径。     

构建大规模人群新型冠状病毒核酸筛查指标体系研究

目的 建立适用于大规模人群新型冠状病毒（新冠病毒）核酸筛查时,科学确定筛查范围的指标体系。方法 采用文献检索和头脑风暴法,拟定大规模人群新冠病毒核酸筛查指标体系初始框架和指标,通过层次分析法及Delphi法结合的方式,对全国21名专家进行两轮咨询,确定大规模人群新冠病毒核酸筛查指标体系及权重。结果 两轮咨询的专家积极指数均为100%,权威系数（Cr）分别为0.88±0.08、0.89±0.07,变异系数（CV）范围（0.08,0.24）、（0.09,0.25）;Kendall''s W协调系数分别为0.34、0.22,差异有统计学意义（χ²=97.02、249.90,P<0.05）。最终确立了包括4个一级指标、11个二级指标、58个三级指标的大规模人群新冠病毒核酸筛查指标体系,并确定了各指标权重。结论 初步建立了大规模人群新冠病毒核酸筛查指标体系,对卫生行政部门科学和精准地确定大规模人群筛查范围时提供参考依据。     

HIV自检模式在男男性行为者中的成本效果分析

目的 分析珠海市MSM中HIV自我检测（HIVST）模式和现场HIV快速检测（HIV-RDT）模式的成本效果和支付意愿,为政府合理配置卫生资源提供参考依据。方法 以卫生服务提供者的视角,收集珠海市在2019年1-9月MSM参与两种HIV检测模式的成本投入和效果产出,采用TreeAge Pro 2019软件构建10 000名MSM队列决策树模型,测算成本效果比（CER）和增量成本效果比（ICER）,以敏感性分析模型中各参数的不确定性,绘制成本效果可支付曲线评价策略的可支付性。结果 珠海市男同社会组织通过互联网+社交媒体动员参与HIVST和现场HIV-RDT的MSM人次数为2 303 vs.816,发现HIV筛查阳性者人数为33 vs.35,筛查阳性率为1.7% vs.4.3%。每筛查1例的成本为60.45元vs.240.43元,每发现1例筛查阳性的成本为4 218元vs.5 606元。决策树模型运行结果显示,每检测1例MSM的平均费用为44.67元vs.148.42元,ICER为负值。当发现1例HIV筛查阳性支付意愿低于6 528元时,HIVST更具成本效果的选择;当投入高于该阈值时,现场HIV-RDT是更具成本效果的选择。结论 珠海市现行的HIVST模式是具有经济学价值的公共卫生项目,决策者应加大社会组织扶持力度,推广HIVST在MSM中的应用。     

咽拭子联合肛拭子作为ICU多重耐药菌入院筛查的有效性评估

目的 评估咽拭子联合肛拭子作为重症监护室（ICU）患者多重耐药菌（MDRO）入院筛查的有效性,为医院感染防控策略提供参考依据。 方法 选取上海地区某院2022年8月1日—12月31日入住ICU 24 h内进行咽拭子联合肛拭子MDRO入院筛查的患者作为试验组,2021年8月1日—12月31日入住ICU 24 h内进行咽拭子MDRO入院筛查的患者作为对照组。比较两组MDRO的入院筛查阳性率、医院感染情况、菌株种类,以及试验组MDRO联合入院筛查的灵敏度及特异度。 结果 共纳入917例患者,其中试验组442例,对照组475例。试验组与对照组患者MDRO入院筛查阳性率分别为7.40%、3.37%,试验组与对照组患者MDRO医院感染发病率分别为2.71%、5.68%,试验组与对照组患者消化系统MDRO医院感染发病率分别为0.68%、2.32%,差异均有统计学意义（均P < 0.05）。咽拭子联合肛拭子的入院筛查方式对预测患者MDRO医院感染的受试者工作特征（ROC）曲线下面积为0.897（P < 0.01,95%CI：0.802~0.993）;试验组咽拭子联合肛拭子MDRO入院筛查灵敏度为72.73%,特异度为97.65%。 结论 咽拭子联合肛拭子可以作为ICU MDRO的入院筛查手段,具有重要的临床应用价值。     

What are the motivating and hindering factors for health professionals to undertake new roles in hospitals? A study among physicians,nurses and managers looking at breast cancer and acute myocardial infarction care in nine countries

BackgroundMany European countries experience health workforce skill-mix changes due to population ageing, multimorbidity and medical technology. Yet, there is limited cross-country research in hospitals.MethodsCross-sectional, observational study on staff role changes and contributing factors in nine European countries. Survey of physicians, nurses and managers (n = 1524) in 112 hospitals treating patients with breast cancer or acute myocardial infarction. Group differences were analysed across country clusters (skill-mix reform countries [England, Scotland and the Netherlands] versus no reform countries [Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Norway, Poland and Turkey]) and stratified by physicians, nurses and managers, using Chi-squared, Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis tests.ResultsNurses in countries with major skill-mix reforms reported more frequently being motivated to undertake a new role (66.5%) and having the opportunity to do so (52.4%), compared to nurses in countries with no reforms (39.2%; 24.8%; p < .001 each). Physicians and nurses considered intrinsic motivating factors (personal satisfaction, use of qualifications) more motivating than extrinsic factors (salary, career opportunities). Reported barriers were workforce shortages, facilitators were professional and management support. Managers’ recruitment decisions on choice of staff were mainly influenced by skills, competences and experience of staff.ConclusionManagers need to know the motivational factors of their employees and enabling versus hindering factors within their organisations to govern change effectively.     

Nutrition risk screening in acute care: a survey of practice

The Joint Commission-accredited acute care hospitals are required to screen patients for nutrition risk, but criteria and procedures in use have not been described. The purpose of this study was to survey managers of clinical nutrition services in acute care hospitals regarding procedures for screening for nutrition risk. Members of the Clinical Nutrition Management Dietetic Practice Group were surveyed using an e-mailed link to an electronic survey. Of 1668 members contacted, 522 usable surveys were completed (31%). Most respondents (84%) reported that nursing staff had primary responsibility for nutrition screening; 10% used nutrition services staff; 4% used a computerized system. Where nursing staff did nutrition screening (n=441), 57% (n=252) said that nutrition services staff do a secondary admission screen. Dietitians most often performed secondary screens (70%), followed by dietetic technicians (16%), 4-year-degreed staff (4%), and clerks (3%). Most nutrition services staff screens (61%) used different data than nursing staff screens; 12% collected the same data as nursing staff. Screening criteria most often used by nursing staff were a history of weight loss (95%), poor intake prior to admission (81%), nutrition support (79%), chewing/swallowing issues (75%), and skin breakdown (72%). Criteria most commonly used by nutrition services staff were diagnosis (90%), nutrition support (81%), nothing by mouth (NPO)/clear liquid diet order (78%), visceral proteins (71%), and specific diet orders (68%). Most respondents had not formally evaluated their screening systems for sensitivity or specificity. There is a need to further evaluate the nutrition screening systems used in acute care hospitals in the U.S.     

Immediate Postpartum Long-Acting Reversible Contraception Programs in Texas Hospitals Following Changes to Medicaid Reimbursement Policy

Objectives

Provision of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) after delivery and prior to discharge is safe and advantageous, yet few Texas hospitals offer this service. Our study describes experiences of Texas hospitals that implemented immediate postpartum LARC (IPLARC) programs, in order to inform the development of other IPLARC programs and guide future research on system-level barriers to broader adoption.

Methods

Eight Texas hospitals that had implemented an IPLARC program were identified, and six agreed to participate in the study. Interviews with 19 key hospital staff covered (1) factors that led the development of an IPLARC program; (2) billing, pharmacy, and administrative operations related to implementation; (3) patient demand and readiness; (4) the consent process; (5) staff training; and (6) hospital plans for monitoring and evaluation of IPLARC services.

Results

Most hospitals in this study primarily served Medicaid and un- or under-insured populations. Participants from all six hospitals perceived high levels of patient demand for IPLARC and provider interest in providing this service. The major challenges were related to financing IPLARC programs. Participants from half of the hospitals reported that leadership had concerns about financial viability of providing IPLARC. The hospitals with the longest-running IPLARC programs were safety net hospitals with family planning training programs.

Conclusions for Practice

We found that hospitals with IPLARC programs all had strong support from both providers and hospital leadership and had funding sources to offset costs that were not reimbursed. Strategies to reduce the financial risks related to IPLARC provision could provide the impetus for new programs to launch and support their sustainability.

     

基于不同外包模式的医院后勤服务人员工作嵌入评价研究

目的比较独家外包和多家外包两种模式下上海市三级公立医院后勤服务人员工作嵌入水平,为提升医院后勤服务管理水平提供参考。方法对上海市17家三级公立医院的第三方公司管理者和保洁人员进行问卷调查,应用R4.0.3软件进行数据分析。结果多家外包模式下,公司管理者和保洁人员的平均年龄、保洁人员税后月收入均高于独家外包模式,女性占比高于男性;两种模式下管理者工作嵌入水平均高于保洁人员;管理者和保洁人员对医院和公司工作嵌入水平整体上差异无统计学意义。结论建议独家模式在工作中引入良性竞争机制,以激发工作人员主观能动性,进一步提升其工作嵌入水平;多家模式加强外包人员工作冲突管理,提高其对医院的依附感;管理者激励应注重促进职业发展和专业能力提升,保洁人员管理应重点关注薪酬的绝对水平和公平性。     

2015—2017年中国城市居民肿瘤防治健康素养调查专题设计方案

健康素养是指个人获取、理解基本健康信息和服务,并运用这些信息和服务做出正确决策,以维护和促进自身健康的能力。为初步了解我国城市居民对癌症危险因素和筛查早诊早治的健康素养和认知,比较不同阶段癌症防治干预的效果,国家癌症中心依托国家重大公共卫生服务项目——城市癌症早诊早治项目,于2015—2017年在全国16个省份开展了中国城市居民肿瘤防治健康素养专题调查。本文重点介绍了该研究的调查对象、调查方法、质量控制、研究局限性等几方面内容,以期为其他相关研究提供借鉴和参考。     

Factors associated with the utilization of electronic medical records in the Eastern Region of Ghana

ObjectivesThis study examined the factors associated with the use of Electronic Medical Records (EMR) in public hospitals in the Eastern Region of Ghana.MethodsThree hundred and ninety-six (396) healthcare professionals were surveyed from the various public hospitals in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The participants included physicians, physician assistants, nurses, laboratory technicians, radiologists, pharmacists, record managers, and ICT staff. Frequency and Chi-Square analyses were performed on the data.ResultsThe results showed that approximately 59% (n=212) of health professionals indicated low use of EMR services in their hospitals. Lack of computer competence (p<0.001), poor communication between users (p=0.050), cost of EMR resources and facilities (p<0.001), lack of technical personnel to install and operate EMR technology resources (p<0.001), and lack of EMR software packages (p<0.001) had significant negative relationships with EMR utilization.ConclusionUtilization of EMR services is low among the healthcare professionals in the Eastern Region. Therefore, the Ghana Health Service needs to provide training to their employees and supply the needed resources to encourage and support the hospitals and healthcare workers to increase the utilization of the EMR services that improve healthcare delivery in the Region. To enhance EMR utilization, it will be essential that government supports health facilities who have challenges using EMR. To better understand the issues, a mixed method approach is recommended to be used to study healthcare workers from both private and public healthcare facilities in the Eastern Region of Ghana.     

Conditions for successful interprofessional collaboration in integrated care – Lessons from a primary care setting in Denmark

IntroductionIncreasing demand for interprofessional collaboration in health care settings has led to a greater focus on how conditions influence the success of interprofessional collaboration, but little is known about the magnitude of the interactions between different conditions. This paper aims to examine the relationships of intervention conditions and context conditions at the professional and organisational level and examine how they influence the staff’s perceived success of the interprofessional collaboration.MethodsThe study was conducted as a multilevel cross-sectional survey in March of 2019 in the second largest municipality in Denmark, Aarhus. The study population was all frontline-staff members and managers in nursing homes, home care units and health care units. The final sample consisted of 498 staff members and 27 managers. Confirmatory path analysis was used to analyse the data.ResultsThe results indicate that context conditions greatly influence intervention conditions at the professional and organisational level and that the professional and organisational levels moderately co-variate. Professional level context conditions have the biggest influence on staff’s perceived success, partly because its influence is confounded by intervention conditions.ConclusionPractice and research in health care settings should re-focus their attention from a broad understanding of context as unchangeable and inconsequential, to understanding context as an important condition type for interprofessional collaboration that needs to be further understood and researched.     

Knowledge and performance of the Ethiopian health extension workers on antenatal and delivery care: a cross-sectional study

Background

This paper describes the task-shifting taking place in health centres and district hospitals in Mozambique and Zambia. The objectives of this study were to identify the perceived causes and factors facilitating or impeding task-shifting, and to determine both the positive and negative consequences of task-shifting for the service users, for the services and for health workers.

Methods

Data collection involved individual and group interviews and focus group discussions with health workers from the civil service.

Results

In both the Republic of Mozambique and the Republic of Zambia, health workers have to practice beyond the traditional scope of their professional practice to cope with their daily tasks. They do so to ensure that their patients receive the level of care that they, the health workers, deem due to them, even in the absence of written instructions. The “out of professional scope” activities consume a significant amount of working time. On occasions, health workers are given on-the-job training to assume new roles, but job titles and rewards do not change, and career progression is unheard of. Ancillary staff and nurses are the two cadres assuming a greater diversity of functions as a result of improvised task-shifting.

Conclusions

Our observations show that the consequences of staff deficits and poor conditions of work include heavier workloads for those on duty, the closure of some services, the inability to release staff for continuing education, loss of quality, conflicts with patients, risks for patients, unsatisfied staff (with the exception of ancillary staff) and hazards for health workers and managers. Task-shifting is openly acknowledged and widespread, informal and carries risks for patients, staff and management.