Prospect Evaluation of Low-GWP Refrigerants R1233zd(E) and R1336mzz(Z) Used in Solar-Driven Ejector-Vapor Compression Hybrid Refrigeration System

In this paper, the entrainment ratio, pump work, heat loads of heat exchangers and COPthermal were theoretically evaluated for a solar-driven ejector-vapor compression hybrid refrigeration system with R1233 zd(E) and R1336 mzz(Z) as the working fluids. The evaluation of the utilization potentials of R1233 zd(E) and R1336 mzz(Z) was presented by comparing the system performance with that of R245 fa, a commonly used refrigerant in the ejector system. The results indicated that the systems with R1233 zd(E) and R1336 mzz(Z) had a higher entrainment ratio and lower pump work. The pump works when using R1233 zd(E) and R1336 mzz(Z) can be up to 14.59% and 38.05% lower than those of R245 fa, respectively. Meanwhile, the system showed the highest COP_(thermal) utilizing R1233 zd(E) followed by that of R245 fa, with the R1336 mzz(Z) system having the lowest value. The differences between R1233 zd(E) and R1336 mzz(Z) systems, R1233 zd(E) and R245 fa systems were 4.33% and 2.0%, respectively. This paper was expected to provide a good reference for the utilizing prospect of R1233 zd(E) and R1336 mzz(Z) in ejector refrigeration systems.     

Investigation of Vapor-liquid Ejector with Organic Working Fluids

The vapor-liquid ejector is a simply flow device and driven by thermal energy. In this paper, a modified mathematical model of the vapor-liquid ejector is proposed, and the validation shows good agreements with the experimental data. A study is carried out with six organic working fluids, namely R1233 zd(E), R1336 mzz(Z), R236 ea, R245 ca, R245 fa and R365 mfc. The influences of the entrainment ratio, the area ratio, the superheating at the vapor nozzle inlet, the subcooling at the liquid nozzle inlet, and the pressures at these inlets on the pressure lifting are parametrically investigated. An increase in the subcooling leads to the great increasing of pressure lifting and the superheating has slight effect on the pressure lifting, whereas others have the opposite tendency. The studies of the pressures and temperatures at the typical locations inside the vapor-liquid ejector are further conducted by using R1336 mzz(Z). The results show that the above parameters have great influence on these pressures and temperatures inside except that the pressures are insignificantly impacted by the superheating, and the temperatures are negligibly affected by the area ratio. R1336 mzz(Z) is recommended as a good working fluid for the vapor-liquid ejector.     

分液冷凝有机朗肯循环系统R245fa/HFOs工质选择研究

有机朗肯循环是中低品位热能高效利用的有效技术之一,分液冷凝有机朗肯循环（LSCORC）是基于分液冷凝传热强化的新型热力循环。为寻找新型环保替代工质,建立LSCORC系统的热力学模型,以最大化净输出功为目标,重点考虑了雅各布数、冷热源换热匹配对系统性能的影响,对R245fa/HFOs工质进行了对比筛选。结果表明：工质的雅各布数越大,其净输出功越小;在基础工况下,R245fa/R1336mzz(Z)的热力性能及热经济性表现最佳;当热源参数变化时,雅各布数较小工质的性能表现普遍优于雅各布数较大的工质组合;当冷源参数变化时,在分液冷凝器两个流程中温度滑移和冷源温升匹配越好的工质组合,其系统净输出功越大。     

Thermal stability and decomposition mechanism of HFO‐1336mzz(Z) as an environmental friendly working fluid: Experimental and theoretical study

HFO‐1336mzz(Z) is a promising working fluid used in high‐temperature heat pump and organic Rankine cycle (ORC) system because of its environmental friendly features and good thermal performance. In this work, a test system is designed to assess the thermal stability of HFO‐1336mzz(Z). The fluoride ion concentration is used as an indicator of HFO‐1336mzz(Z) dissociation. The experimental results show that the pressure has a great effect on the dissociation of HFO‐1336mzz(Z) and the dissociation temperatures of HFO‐1336mzz(Z) at 2.1, 3.1, and 4.0 MPa for 24 hours are 310°C to 330°C, 290°C to 310°C, and 270°C to 290°C, respectively. The decomposition products of HFO‐1336mzz(Z) are measured by a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR); the main decomposition products are HF, CF₄, CHF₃, C2F₄, C₂F₆, C₂HF₅, and C₃F₈. Finally, density functional theory (DFT) method is used to study the decomposition mechanism of HFO‐1336mzz(Z). The main initial decomposition reaction is the fracture of C?C bond into C–C bond, and then the CF₃ group is separated from HFO‐1336mzz(Z) molecule to produce CF₃ radical. H, F‐abstraction, and combination reactions are important in the consequent reactions to generate the main decomposition products.     

低GWP工质闪蒸补气式高温热泵性能对比

高温热泵作为一种有效的节能技术可以满足大多数的工业用热需求,遴选安全、环保、高效的制冷剂是当前高温热泵技术研究的重要工作之一。针对闪蒸补气式高温热泵,基于EES（Engineering Equation Solver）软件建立系统数学模型,以性能系数（COP）、制热量、单位容积制热量、冷凝压力、压缩比以及压缩机排气温度为性能指标,在冷凝温度 ≥ 100℃,温升分别为40℃、50℃和60℃工况下,对R1224yd(Z)、R1233zd(E)、R1336mzz(Z)和R1234ze(Z) 四种氢氟烯烃制冷剂在闪蒸补气式热泵系统中的应用潜力进行分析,并与R245fa比较。结果表明,R1336mzz(Z) 的COP最大、冷凝压力最低,但单位容积制热量最小,相对适用于小容量供热系统;R1234ze(Z)的单位容积制热量最大,且COP与R245fa相当,是R245fa的良好替代工质,尤其适用于大容量高温升供热系统;R1233zd(E) 虽然单位容积制热量偏低,但其COP、制热量和冷凝压力相对R245fa具有显著优势,亦可作为R245fa的替代工质;与R245fa相比,R1224yd(Z) 的热力性能无明显优势。     

基于热源耦合ORC ANN模型的循环性能预测及工质优选

基于已建立的有机朗肯循环(ORC) 人工神经网络(ANN)模型,将其与热源进行耦合,从而在不同烟气工况下对ORC进行循环性能预测及工质优选。为了分析与热源耦合的ORC ANN模型精度,基于初选的10种工质,比较了该模型与REFPROP软件对基本ORC和回热ORC的计算结果,比较结果表明：该ORC ANN模型对大部分循环参数的平均相对偏差都小于5%。在此基础上,针对不同烟气热源温度（523.15,488.15和453.15 K）,以最大净输出功为目标,分别优化循环的蒸发温度,优化结果显示：3种热源温度对应的最佳工质分别为R1336mzz(Z),R600a和R236fa。     

不同工质对太阳能有机朗肯循环系统性能的影响

循环工质的特性是影响有机朗肯循环系统性能的重要因素之一,在不同的蒸发温度条件下,选取R600、R600a、R245fa、R236fa、R236ea、R601、R601a、RC318及R227ea共9种有机工质,基于热力学第一定律和第二定律对其热力循环特性进行了计算分析,并对各有机工质的蒸发压力、热效率、功比和不可逆损失等进行了比较.结果表明：R245fa作为太阳能低温热发电朗肯循环系统的循环工质具有较高的热效率和效率,并且产生的系统总不可逆损失较小,是一种较理想的有机工质;其次,R236fa和R236ea作为系统循环工质也具有较为良好的性能.     

A comparative study of pure and zeotropic mixtures in low-temperature solar Rankine cycle

The paper presents an on site experimental study of a low-temperature solar Rankine cycle system for power generation. The cycle performances of pure fluid M₁ (R245fa) and zeotropic mixtures M₂ (R245fa/R152a, 0.9/0.1) and M₃ (R245fa/R152a, 0.7/0.3) are compared, respectively, based on the experimental prototype. The experiments have been conducted under constant volume flow rate of different fluids. The results show that, with the component of R152a increasing, the system pressure level increases and the power output varies accordingly, which provides an additional means of capacity adjustment. The collector efficiency and thermal efficiency of zeotropic mixtures are comparatively higher than pure fluid of R245fa in the experimental condition, which indicates that zeotropic mixtures have the potential for overall efficiency improvement. Due to the non-isothermal condensation of zeotropic mixture, the condensing heat could be partially recovered by adding an external heat exchanger. Thus, compared with pure fluid R245fa the system overall efficiency of zeotropic mixtures could be improved.     

Critical Heat Flux of R134a and R245fa Inside Small-Diameter Tubes

This article presents new experimental critical heat flux results under saturated flow boiling conditions for a macro-/microscale tube. The data were obtained in a horizontal 2.20-mm inside diameter stainless-steel tube with heating lengths of 361 and 154 mm, R134a and R245fa as working fluids, mass velocities ranging from 100 to 1500 kg/m²-s, critical heat flux from 25 to 300 kW/m², exit saturation temperatures of 25, 31, and 35°C, and critical vapor qualities ranging from 0.55 to 1. The experimental results show that critical heat flux (CHF) increases with increasing mass velocity and inlet subcooling but decreases with increasing saturation temperature and heated length. The data also indicated a higher CHF for R245fa when compared with R134a at similar conditions. The experimental data were compared against four CHF predictive methods and the results of the comparisons are reported.     

Parametric Analysis of Dry Hydrocarbons on the Performance of Organic Rankine Cycle Improved by Working Fluid Reheating

In this paper, the performance of organic Rankine cycle with a two‐stage turbine and internal heat exchanger, considering different dry hydrocarbons as working fluid, has been analyzed. This thermodynamic analysis is done using Engineering Equation Solver version 8.379 software. The influence of working fluid reheating has been studied and the critical temperatures for the thermal and exergy efficiencies are determined. Results show that thermal and exergy efficiencies increase with working fluid reheating and also through a two‐stage turbine. RC‐318 is a good replacement for R‐236fa, R‐113 has a better efficiency than R‐236fa, R‐245fa, and iso‐butane and finally cyclohexane can achieve the highest efficiency. Although the maximum value of efficiencies for each one of working fluids are different, but all of these maximum values almost happen at a unique value of relative pressure of the cycle. The same result has been presented for variation of turbine inlet temperature.     

Effect of dry hydrocarbons and critical point temperature on the efficiencies of organic Rankine cycle

Higher efficiencies and optimal utilization of geothermal energy require a careful selection of the working fluid in organic Rankine cycles (ORC). The objectives of this study are to analyze and explain the effect of using alternative dry fluids on the efficiencies of the ORC and compare them with other refrigerants. In addition, the effect of the critical temperature on the thermal and exergetic efficiencies will also be determined. Results showed that iso-pentane is a good replacement for R-113, while neo-pentane outperformed C₅F₁₂. In addition, n-butane showed better efficiency than RC-318, R-236fa, and R-245fa. The best working fluid in the studied system was n-hexane, while R-227ea was the worst. It was also found that efficiencies correlate with the critical temperature of the working fluid where a strong functionality was noticed in the studied range. The contribution of the evaporator to the total exergy destruction was the most relevant, while the pump contribution was marginal. It is concluded that thermodynamically, hydrocarbons are superior to some refrigerants and could be the next generation working fluids for geothermal or waste heat recovery systems.     

High heat flux flow boiling in silicon multi-microchannels – Part II: Heat transfer characteristics of refrigerant R245fa

This article is the second in a three-part study. This second part focuses on flow boiling heat transfer of refrigerant R245fa in a silicon multi-microchannel heat sink and their comparison with the results presented in part I for refrigerant R236fa. This heat sink was the same as utilized in part I. The test conditions covered base heat fluxes from 3.6 to 190 W/cm², mass velocities from 281 to 1501 kg/m² s and the exit vapour qualities from 0% to 78%. The effect of saturation pressure on heat transfer was tested from 141 to 273 kPa for R245fa and the effect of sub-cooling from 0 to 19 K. The R245fa database includes 693 local heat transfer coefficient measurements, for which four different heat transfer trends were identified, although in most cases the heat transfer coefficient increased with heat flux, was almost independent of vapour quality and increased with mass velocity. The entire database, including both R245fa and R236fa measurements, was compared with four prediction methods for flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels. The three-zone model of Thome et al. (J.R. Thome, V. Dupont, A.M. Jacobi, Heat transfer model for evaporation in microchannels. Part I: presentation of the model, International J. Heat Mass Transfer 47 (2004) 3375–3385) was found to give the best predictions, capturing 90% of the data within ±30% in the slug and annular flow regimes (x > 5%).     

Experimental comparison of R245fa and R245fa/R601a for organic Rankine cycle using scroll expander

An experimental test was conducted to compare R245fa with R245fa/R601a on the organic Rankine cycle performance. The major objective of this paper is to ascertain the highest thermal efficiency and the optimal dimensionless volume ratio using the two working fluids. The experimental system consists of an electrically heated boiler, a vapor generator, a scroll expander, a condenser, a working fluid pump, and so on. For the typical weather conditions of May in Tianjin, the experiment results show that the working fluid charge has an important influence on the organic Rankine cycle performances. The optimal isentropic efficiency of the scroll expander corresponds to the design expansion ratio. Underexpanded and overexpanded processes result in the decline of the isentropic efficiency of the scroll expander, with the former playing a major role. R245fa/R601a improves the heat transfer performance in the vapor generator because of the nonisothermal phase change. The highest thermal efficiency for R245fa and R245fa/R601a is 4.38% and 4.45%, thereby illustrating that R245fa/R601a precedes R245fa. The optimal dimensionless volume ratios for R245fa and R245fa/R601a are 0.38 and 0.41, respectively. The experimental test lays foundation of the 500‐kW geothermal plant for demonstration in the next step. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

采用不同工质的高温复合热泵开水器特性研究

热泵开水器具有较高的能源利用效率,是公共场所电加热开水装置的理想替代品。从提高能源效率和一机两用的角度,构建了一种高温复合热泵开水器系统。建立了系统热力学模型,选R236fa、R245fa、R365mfc、R245ca、RC318和R236ea等6种较高临界温度的制冷工质,通过能量分析和[火用]分析的方法,探讨了不同制冷工质对高温复合热泵开水器系统性能的影响。研究结果表明:R245fa作为工质的高温复合热泵开水器系统具有最佳的性能,而以RC318作为工质的系统性能最差。在给定工况下,R245fa作为工质系统制热性能系数(COP_h)为2.47,而其制冷性能系数(COP_c)为3.37,[火用]损失和[火用]效率分别为9.47 kW和49.07%;与R245fa相比,RC318作为工质系统的总能耗增加了39.53%。     

Experimental investigation of moderately high temperature water source heat pump with non-azeotropic refrigerant mixtures

Experimental investigations were carried out on non-azeotropic refrigerant mixtures, named M1A (mass fraction of 20%R152a and 80%R245fa), M1B (mass fraction of 37% R152a and 63%R245fa) and M1C (mass fraction of 50%R152a and 50%R245fa), based on a water-to-water heat pump system in the condensing temperature range of 70–90 °C with a cycle temperature lift of 45 °C. Performance of R245fa was tested for comparison. Unfair factors in experimental comparative evaluation research with the same apparatus were identified and corrected. Experimental cycle performance of the mixtures were tested and compared with improved experimental assessment methodology. The results show that all of the mixtures deliver higher discharge temperature, higher heating capacity, higher COP and higher ε_h,c than R245fa. M1B presents the most excellent cycle performance and is recommended as working fluid for moderate/high temperature heat pump.     

R245fa作为有机朗肯循环工质的材料相容性研究

对于可再生能源和工业余热资源,有机朗肯循环技术(organic Rankine cycle,ORC)被认为是一种高效的能源回收利用技术。其中R245fa因为其自身良好的环保性以及热力性能,被认为是一种具有良好应用前景的ORC工质。对于ORC系统来说,工质的材料相容性是保证系统稳定运行的基础。针对ORC系统实际工况,确定部件、温度、材料等因素的对应关系,提出一套适用于ORC工质材料相容性研究的实验方法,并以R245fa为例开展了实验研究。实验结果表明,在高温条件下,304不锈钢与R245fa的相容性要优于铜材料;同时在橡胶密封材料的选择上,不建议使用氟橡胶,且三元乙丙橡胶的相容性要优于聚四氟乙烯。     

Comparison of a Basic Organic Rankine Cycle and a Parallel Double-Evaporator Organic Rankine Cycle

ABSTRACT

The applications of zeotropic mixtures and multi-evaporator systems are two viable options to improve the performance of the organic Rankine cycle (ORC). This paper conducts the thermo-economic comparison of a basic ORC with R245fa/R600a and a parallel double-evaporator organic Rankine cycle (PDORC) with R245fa. Four indicators are used to evaluate the system performance: net power, cycle efficiency, area of heat exchangers, and area of heat exchangers per net power output. Submodels of condensers and evaporators are established specially for pure organic fluids and zeotropic mixtures. The performance optimization using genetic algorithm is conducted to compare the two systems quantitatively. The optimization indicates a zeotropic mixture is more profitable than a pure work fluid in a basic ORC with a worthy additional investment of heat exchanger. Though PDORC can increase net power obviously, it would decrease the thermo-economic performance of ORC.     

Working fluids for low-temperature heat source

The performance of different working fluids to recover low-temperature heat source is studied. A simple Rankine cycle with subcritical configuration is considered. This work is to screen working fluids based on power production capability and component (heat exchanger and turbine) size requirements. Working fluids considered are R134a, R123, R227ea, R245fa, R290, and n-pentane. Energy balance is carried out to predict operating conditions of the process. Outputs of energy balance are used as input for exergy analysis and components (heat exchanger and turbine) design. The heat exchanger is divided into small intervals so that logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) method is applicable. R227ea gives highest power for heat source temperature range of 80–160 °C and R245fa produces the highest in the range of 160–200 °C. There is optimal pressure where the heat exchanger surface area is minimum. This optimal pressure changes with heat source temperature and working fluid used. The least heat exchanger area required at constant power rating is found when the working fluid is n-pentane. At lower heat source temperature (80 °C), the maximum power output and minimum heat exchanger surface area for different working fluids is comparable.     

亚临界有机朗肯循环系统的热经济分析与优化

以系统发电成本(electricity production cost,EPC)为评价指标,对用于回收工业锅炉烟气余热的有机朗肯循环(ORC)系统进行了热经济分析与优化。结果表明,随着蒸发器和冷凝器节点温差的增大,系统发电成本先减小、再增大,即存在一组最优的蒸发器和冷凝器节点温差使发电成本最小。分别以纯工质R245fa和R236ea、非共沸混合工质R141b/RC318和乙烷/丁烷为循环工质,得到了最小发电成本时有机朗肯循环系统的最优工作参数,以及对应的系统净输出功、热效率和火用效率。     

Experimental Investigation of Two-Phase Pressure Drop in a Microchannel

Experimental results of two-phase pressure drop in a horizontal circular microchannel are reported in this paper. A test tube was made of fused silica having an internal diameter of 781 μm with a total length of 261 mm and a heated length of 191 mm. The outer surface of the test tube was coated with an electrically conductive thin layer of ITO (indium tin oxide) for direct heating of the test section. Refrigerants R134a and R245fa were used as the working fluids, and mass flux during the experiments was varied between 100 and 650 kg/m²-s. Experiments were performed at two different system pressures corresponding to saturation temperatures of 25°C and 30°C for R134a and at three different system pressures corresponding to saturation temperatures of 30°C, 35°C, and 40°C for R245fa. Two-phase frictional pressure drop characteristics with variation of mass flux, vapor fraction, saturation temperature, and heat flux were explored in detail. Finally, the prediction capability of some well-known correlations available in the literature, some developed for macrochannels and others especially developed for microchannels, was assessed.