Mechanisms of the central mode particle formation during pulverized coal combustion

Ash particles produced from pulverized coal combustion are considered to be tri-modally distributed. These include the well-known ultrafine and coarse modes, and a central mode that is less reported but attracts increasing attention. This work presents a preliminary study on the formation mechanisms of the central mode particles during pulverized coal combustion. Experiments of four sized and density-separated coal samples were carried out in a laboratory drop-tube furnace under various controlled conditions. Experimental data show that the ash particle size distributions have an evident central mode at 4 μm for all coal samples. Increasing combustion temperature leads to an increase in the central mode particle formation, which is thought to be due to enhanced char fragmentation. The small-size coal sample produces a larger amount of the central mode particles, reasonably due to abundant fine particles in the parent coal sample. Under similar combustion conditions, both the Heavy (>2.0 g/cm³) and Light (<1.4 g/cm³) coal fractions produce a central mode, indicating that not only the included minerals but also the excluded minerals contribute to the formation of the central mode particles.     

Ultrafine ash aerosols from coal combustion: Characterization and health effects

Ultrafine coal fly-ash particles, defined here as those with diameters less than 0.5 μm, typically comprise less than 1% of the total fly-ash mass. These particles are formed primarily through ash vaporization, nucleation, and coagulation/condensation mechanisms, which lead to compositions notably different compared to other fine or coarse particle fractions formed by fragmentation. Whereas previous studies have focused on health effects of particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) (including both vaporization and fragmentation modes), this paper reports results of interdisciplinary research focused on both characterization and health effects of primary ultrafine coal ash aerosols alone. Ultrafine, fine, and coarse ash particles were segregated and collected from a coal burned in a 20 kW laboratory combustor and two additional coals burned in an externally heated drop tube furnace. Extracted samples from both combustors were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WD-XRF) spectroscopy, Mossbauer spectroscopy, and X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy. Pulmonary inflammation was characterized by albumin concentrations in mouse lung lavage fluid after instillation of collected particles in saline solutions and a single direct inhalation exposure. Results indicate that coal ultrafine ash sometimes, but not always, contains significant amounts of carbon, probably soot originating from coal tar volatiles, depending on coal type and combustion device. Surprisingly, XAFS results revealed the presence of chromium and thiophenic sulfur in the ultrafine ash particles. Although the single direct inhalation study failed to reveal significant health effects, the instillation results suggested potential lung injury, the severity of which could be correlated with the carbon (soot) content of the ultrafines. Further, this increased toxicity is consistent with theories in which the presence of carbon mediates transition metal (i.e., Fe) complexes, as revealed in this work by TEM and XAFS spectroscopy, promoting reactive oxygen species, oxidation–reduction cycling, and oxidative stress.     

The progressive formation of submicron particulate matter in a quasi one-dimensional pulverized coal combustor

In this work, we aim to investigate the formation mechanisms of submicron particulate matter (PM₁) by observing progressive changes of collected samples at different combustion stages. A 25 kW quasi one-dimensional down-fired pulverized coal combustor was used, where PM₁ was collected from the furnace centerline through the desired sampling ports by using a nitrogen-aspirated, water-cooling isokinetic sampling probe followed a 13-stage electric low pressure impactor. First, the mass concentration particle-size-distributions (PSD) of PM₁ sampled at coal flame zone clearly exhibit two distinct modes separated by a fraction of 0.173–0.267 μm, ultrafine mode and intermediate mode. However, the ultrafine peak around 63 nm greatly decreases and becomes flat as coal combustion further progresses along axial length. Then, the contributions of either organically bounded minerals or inherent minerals to these two modes at different stages are analyzed. Finally, the evolution of sulfur-concentration PSD reveals the effects of pyrite decomposition and the sulfation reaction on PM₁ formation in the combustion system.     

On the interplay of chemical and physical processes during the combustion of aluminum in water vapor

A model is considered, and the results of numerical calculations of the dynamics of the combustion of pre-prepared gas mixtures of Al and H₂O under adiabatic conditions are presented. The formation of the condensed phase is modeled taking into account the homogeneous nucleation of Al₂O₃ molecules and the processes of condensation, evaporation, and coagulation. The time dependences of the gas composition of the system, the concentration of aerosol particles, and their size distribution during the process are simulated. Details of the mechanism of the interplay of the gas-phase reactions and the formation of aerosol particles during aluminum combustion are discussed.     

Investigating particle and volatile evolution during pulverized coal combustion using high-speed digital in-line holography

Devolatilization is an important process in pulverized coal combustion because it affects the ignition, volatile combustion, and subsequent char burning and ash formation. In this study, high-speed digital in-line holography is employed to visualize and quantify the particle and volatile evolution during pulverized coal combustion. China Shanxi bituminous coal particles sieved in the range of 105–154 µm are entrained into a flat flame burner through a central tube for the study. Time-resolved observations show the volatile ejection, accumulation, and detachment in the early stage of coal combustion. Three-dimensional imaging and automatic particle extraction algorithm allow for the size and velocity statistics of the particle and stringy volatile tail. The results demonstrate the smaller particle generation and coal particle swelling in the devolatilization. It is found that the coal particles and volatiles accelerate due to the thermal buoyancy and the volatiles move faster than the coal particles. On average, smaller particles move faster than the larger ones while some can move much slower possibly because of the fragmentation.     

PM10 formation during the combustion of N2-char and CO2-char of Chinese coals

The formation of PM₁₀ (particles less than or equal to 10 μm in aerodynamic diameter) during char combustion in both air-firing and oxy-firing was investigated. Three Chinese coals of different ranks (i.e., DT bituminous coal, CF lignite, and YQ anthracite) were devolatilized at 1300 °C in N₂ and CO₂ atmosphere, respectively, in a drop tube furnace (DTF). The resulting N₂-chars and CO₂-chars were burned at 1300 °C in both air-firing (O₂/N₂ = 21/79) and oxy-firing (O₂/CO₂ = 21/79). The effects of char properties and combustion conditions on PM₁₀ formation during char combustion were studied. It was found that the formation modes and particle size distribution of PM₁₀ from char combustion whether in air-firing or in oxy-firing were similar to those from pulverized coal combustion. The significant amounts of PM_0.5 (particles less than or equal to 0.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter) generated from combustion of various chars suggested that the mineral matter left in the chars after coal devolatilization still had great contributions to the formation of ultrafine particles even during the char combustion stage. The concentration of PM₁₀ from char combustion in oxy-firing was generally less than that in air-firing. The properties of the CO₂-chars were different from those of the N₂-chars, which was likely due to gasification reactions coal particles experienced during devolatilization in CO₂ atmosphere. Regardless of the combustion modes, PM₁₀ formation in combustion of N₂-char and CO₂-char from the same coal was found to be significantly dependent on char properties. The difference in the PM₁₀ formation behavior between the N₂-char and CO₂-char was coal-type dependent.     

Additional criteria for MILD coal combustion

We proposed a theoretical basis for Moderate or Intense Low-oxygen Dilution (MILD) coal combustion based on the turbulent scalar energy spectra. This is motivated by the hypothesis that smallest scalar mixing length scales should be on the order of the particle size or smaller to ensure that mixing can occur to prevent formation of diffusion flames. Our proposed criterion is evaluated using several experimental datasets from the literature for coal combustion in both MILD and traditional combustion regimes. The experimental results confirm that the smallest mixing length scales should be of the order of or smaller than the particle diameter, η_mix?d_p, to breakup the heat and mass transfer boundary layers around particles in MILD coal combustion. Results indicate that poor mixing of species with small Schmidt numbers around small particles leads to the high luminous intensity in the reactor. The effects of inlet velocity and jet diameter on the mixing length scales are analyzed. Higher inlet velocity and smaller jet diameter are expected to reach MILD regime. The proposed criterion can be used to guide experimental design to achieve MILD conditions for coal combustion.     

Influences of different powders on the characteristics of particle charging and deposition in powder coating processes

This experimental study investigated the influences of two different powder systems (coarse and ultrafine) on particle charging and deposition characteristics during electrostatic powder coating processes. Results disclosed that, despite their differences in particle sizes, the two powders behave similarly in deposition process, commonly resulting in a cone-shaped deposited pattern in the inner portion of the substrate and an increase of deposited particles in the fringe region. However, their different properties lead to the discrepancies in their deposition efficiencies, which account for a higher efficiency with the coarse powder. The study further revealed that the coarse powder is superior to the ultrafine powder in charging in-flight particles, which directly contributes to its higher deposition efficiencies. Furthermore, it was disclosed that the two powders exhibit distinct characteristics in charging deposited particles. Compared to the coarse powder, the ultrafine powder is more uniform in charging deposited particles, mainly owing to its greater particle number and higher specific surface area but less mass. In particular, the charging efficiency of overall deposited particles decreases for the ultrafine powder but increases for the coarse powder with increased charging voltage, closely related to their particle properties. However, both powders decrease in charging efficiency of deposited particles with extended spraying duration due to back corona intensifying with spraying.     

Elemental characterization of airborne particles in Khartoum,Sudan

The aim of this study was to investigate the elemental composition of airborne particles in the Khartoum area, particularly small inhalable particles of diameter ≤10 µm. Aerosol particles were collected during the period April–May 2001. The sampling was done using a dichotomous virtual impactor capable of separating airborne particles <2.5 µm in a fine mode and 2.5–10 µm particles in a coarse mode. Energy‐dispersive x‐ray fluorescence analysis was used to determine the elemental concentrations of 14 elements in the samples. Concentrations of black carbon were also measured on the two size fractions. The results obtained were compared with previous data from Khartoum and other African locations. Si, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Zn and Sr were found to be dominant in the collected particulates. Day period collections were found to have higher elemental concentrations than those of night periods. This is attributed to higher traffic levels and wind speeds. The results show that dust aerosol transport and resuspension are the main sources that affect the quality of ambient air in the Khartoum area. The elemental concentrations from anthropogenic sources are generally low. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

煤燃烧超细颗粒物生成和控制的实验研究

为了解煤燃烧过程中温度对超细颗粒物生成的影响和吸附剂抑制超细颗粒物生成的有效性,本文进行了小龙潭褐煤的滴管炉燃烧试验。收集的超细颗粒物的尺寸分布已经在不同的操作参数下进行了测量。超细颗粒物主要通过汽化-成核-冷凝机理形成。因为小于100 nm的颗粒物没有得到充分的控制,一种加入蒸汽吸附剂的方法在煤燃烧系统中得到应用,事实证明这种方法可以有效地抑制超细颗粒物的生成。     

CFD在燃煤细粒子凝聚过程中的应用

燃煤产生的细粒子富集了大量的有毒痕量元素,对大气环境和人类健康造成严重危害。本文针对燃煤细粒子的形成过程,在计算流体力学(CFD)的基础上,结合气溶胶动力学理论,模拟了烟气中细粒子在圆柱形流场中由于碰撞而凝聚的过程,并通过计算结果分析细粒子颗粒特征参量(速度、质量、直径和颗粒数目)随流场的变化趋势,为深入研究燃煤细粒子的形成演化机理提供理论基础。     

Surface modification of Al-20Si alloy by high current pulsed electron beam

Hypereutectic Al-20Si (Si 20 wt.%, Al balance)alloy surface was treated with high current pulsed electron beam (HCPEB) under different pulse numbers. The results indicate that HCPEB irradiation induces the formation of metastable structures on the treated surface. The coarse primary Si particle melts, producing a “halo” microstructure with primary Si as the center on the melted surface. A supersaturated solid solution of Al is formed in the melted layer caused by Si atoms dissolving into the Al matrix. Cross-section structure analysis shows that a 4 μm remelted layer is formed underneath the top surface of the HCEPB-treated sample. Compared with the matrix, the Al and Si elements in the remelted layer are distributed uniformly. In addition, the grains of the Al-20Si alloy surface are refined after HCPEB treatment, as shown by TEM observation. Nano-silicon particles are dispersed on the surface of remelted layer. Polygonal subgrains, approximately 50-100 nm in size, are formed in the Al matrix. The hardness test results show that the microhardness of the α(Al) and eutectic structure is increased with increasing pulse number. The hardness of the “halo” microstructure presents a gradient change after 15 pulse treatment due to the diffusion of Si atoms. Furthermore, hardness tests of the cross-section at different depths show that the microhardness of the remelted layer is higher than that of the matrix. Therefore, HCPEB technology is a good surface modification method for enhancing the surface hardness of hypereutectic Al-20Si alloy.     

Comprehensive microanalytical study of welding aerosols with x‐ray and Raman based methods

A comprehensive analysis of individual welding fume particles of different size fraction has been performed by applying of an innovative combination of the energy‐dispersive x‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy (EDXRF), micro‐Raman spectroscopy (MRS) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). Owing to this set of analytical techniques, a systematic study of the chemical composition along with the size, morphology and structure parameters of the collected welding particles was performed. The results show distinct interdependencies between the particles' elemental composition and their sizes and structures, which are consistent with commonly assumed mechanisms of their formation and evolution. In particular, interactions between the particles of fine and coarse fractions as well as regularities in distribution of the most toxic welding fume components (Mn and its oxides) have been observed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Non-Invasive Size-Control of Pneumatically Conveyed Particles

Investigations on the size control of pneumatically conveyed coarse particles were carried out using a microphone which detects the structure-borne sound caused by the impact of the particles on the pipe wall. Modes of eigenvibrations of the pipes are excited up to a maximum frequency, which decreases with increasing particle size. In an assembly of different sized particles, the lower frequencies are more stimulated as the fraction of larger particles increases. Changes in the particle size distribution are detected by analysing the intensities of the vibration modes which are set up in the walls of the tube by particle impact. One application is the monitoring of the upper range of a particle size distribution.     

Bimodal Nanoparticle Size Distributions Produced by Laser Ablation of Microparticles in Aerosols

Silver nanoparticles were produced by laser ablation of a continuously flowing aerosol of microparticles in nitrogen at varying laser fluences. Transmission electron micrographs were analyzed to determine the effect of laser fluence on the nanoparticle size distribution. These distributions exhibited bimodality with a large number of particles in a mode at small sizes (3–6-nm) and a second, less populated mode at larger sizes (11–16-nm). Both modes shifted to larger sizes with increasing laser fluence, with the small size mode shifting by 35% and the larger size mode by 25% over a fluence range of 0.3–4.2-J/cm². Size histograms for each mode were found to be well represented by log-normal distributions. The distribution of mass displayed a striking shift from the large to the small size mode with increasing laser fluence. These results are discussed in terms of a model of nanoparticle formation from two distinct laser–solid interactions. Initially, laser vaporization of material from the surface leads to condensation of nanoparticles in the ambient gas. Material evaporation occurs until the plasma breakdown threshold of the microparticles is reached, generating a shock wave that propagates through the remaining material. Rapid condensation of the vapor in the low-pressure region occurs behind the traveling shock wave. Measurement of particle size distributions versus gas pressure in the ablation region, as well as, versus microparticle feedstock size confirmed the assignment of the larger size mode to surface-vaporization and the smaller size mode to shock-formed nanoparticles.     

Modifying the structural phase state of fine-grained titanium under conditions of ion irradiation

The results from quantitative investigations into the structural phase state of finely dispersed titanium before and after implantation with aluminum ions are presented. Two types of ??-Ti grains differing by phase composition, defect structure, and size are distinguished in the structure: fine grains in the range of 0.1?C0.5 ??m and coarse grains in the range of 0.5?C5 ??m. The presence of two types of TiO₂ particles in the material, i.e., rounded particles found at dislocations in the bulk of the ??-Ti grains and lamellar particles found only inside coarse ??-Ti grains, is established. The formation of the Ti₃Al phase is observed in the form of lamellar inclusions along the grain boundaries and rounded particles in triple joints. It is found that the particles of the TiAl₃ phase are isolated with a smaller volume fraction than the Ti₃Al phase; they are localized along the boundaries of coarse grains of the titanium matrix. It is established that the granular state and defect structure of the material change substantially after ion irradiation; i.e., the dislocation density and the fields of internal stresses in fine grains grow considerably, relative to the initial state of titanium.     

Measurement of radiative gas and particle emissions in biomass flames

Radiation is the dominant mode of heat transfer near the burner of coal and biomass-fired boilers. Predicting and measuring heat transfer is critical to the design and operation of new boiler concepts. The individual contributions of gas and particle phases are dependent on gas and particle concentration, particle size, and gas and particle temperature which vary with location relative to the flame. A method for measuring the contributions of both gas and particle radiation capable of being applied in harsh high temperature and pressure environments has been demonstrated using emission from particles and water vapor using an optical fiber probe transmitting a signal to a Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. The method was demonstrated in four environments of varying gas and particle loading using natural gas and pulverized wood flames in a down-fired 130?kW_th cylindrical reactor. The method generates a gas and particle temperature, gas concentrations (H₂O and CO₂), total gas and particle intensities, and gas and particle total effective emissivity from line-of-sight emission measurements. For the conditions measured, downstream of the luminous flame zone, water vapor and CO₂ radiation were the dominant modes of heat transfer (effective emissivity 0.13–0.19) with particles making a minor contribution (effective emissivity 0.01–0.02). Within a lean natural gas flame, soot emission was low (effective emissivity 0.02) compared to gas (0.14) but within a luminous flame of burning wood particles (500?µm mean diameter) the particles (soot and burning wood) produced a higher effective emissivity (0.17) than the gas (0.12). The measurement technique was therefore found to be effective for several types of combustion environments.     

Workplace air measurements and likelihood of exposure to manufactured nano-objects,agglomerates, and aggregates

Workplace exposure to nanoparticles from gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process in an automobile manufacturing factory was investigated using a combination of multiple metrics and a comparison with background particles. The number concentration (NC), lung-deposited surface area concentration (SAC), estimated SAC and mass concentration (MC) of nanoparticles produced from the GMAW process were significantly higher than those of background particles before welding (P < 0.01). A bimodal size distribution by mass for welding particles with two peak values (i.e., 10,000–18,000 and 560–320 nm) and a unimodal size distribution by number with 190.7-nm mode size or 154.9-nm geometric size were observed. Nanoparticles by number comprised 60.7 % of particles, whereas nanoparticles by mass only accounted for 18.2 % of the total particles. The morphology of welding particles was dominated by the formation of chain-like agglomerates of primary particles. The metal composition of these welding particles consisted primarily of Fe, Mn, and Zn. The size distribution, morphology, and elemental compositions of welding particles were significantly different from background particles. Working activities, sampling distances from the source, air velocity, engineering control measures, and background particles in working places had significant influences on concentrations of airborne nanoparticle. In addition, SAC showed a high correlation with NC and a relatively low correlation with MC. These findings indicate that the GMAW process is able to generate significant levels of nanoparticles. It is recommended that a combination of multiple metrics is measured as part of a well-designed sampling strategy for airborne nanoparticles. Key exposure factors, such as particle agglomeration/aggregation, background particles, working activities, temporal and spatial distributions of the particles, air velocity, engineering control measures, should be investigated when measuring workplace exposure to nanoparticles.     

Modeling of the submicron particles formation and initial layer ash deposition during high temperature oxy-coal combustion

The future use of coal as a fuel for power generation in the US depends on the availability of financially viable technologies for capture and storage of CO₂ emissions from power plants. Key second-generation candidates for CO₂ capture include high temperature and pressurized oxy-firing of coal, which has the potential to increase efficiency, lower capital costs, avoid air ingress and reduce oxygen requirements. However, unquantified challenges, such as flame behavior, heat transfer, ash transformation, ash deposition and char oxidation, still exist for those technologies. This study specifically focuses on the formation of submicron particles and initial layer ash deposition during high temperature oxy-coal combustion. Previous work has shown that the initial layer deposits are mainly formed of submicron size ash aerosols transported by thermophoresis. Unfortunately, the importance of submicron particle deposition has not received much attention, probably due to the insignificant deposit mass and difficulty in prediction of the submicron particles formation. In this work, models including mineral matter vaporization model, scavenging model and deposition model are developed and applied into a three-dimensional CFD framework to predict the submicron particles formation and subsequent initial layer deposits formation. The model results are comparable to experimental data. The merits of this work are that it has led to the development of a novel approach to predict both submicron particle formation and initial layer ash deposition during oxy-coal combustion.     

Modeling of soot aggregate formation and size distribution in a laminar ethylene/air coflow diffusion flame with detailed PAH chemistry and an advanced sectional aerosol dynamics model

Soot aggregate formation and size distribution in a laminar ethylene/air coflow diffusion flame is modeled with a PAH-based soot model and an advanced sectional aerosol dynamics model. The mass range of solid soot phase is divided into 35 discrete sections and two variables are solved for in each section. The coagulation kernel of soot aggregates is calculated for the entire Knudsen number regime. Radiation from gaseous species and soot are calculated by a discrete-ordinate method with a statistical narrow-band correlated-k based band model. The discretized sectional soot equations are solved simultaneously to ensure convergence. Parallel computation with the domain decomposition method is used to save computational time. The flame temperature, soot volume fraction, primary particle size and number density are well reproduced. The number of primary particles per aggregate is overpredicted. This discrepancy is presumably associated with the unitary coagulation efficiency assumption in the current sectional model. Along the maximum soot volume fraction pathline, the number-based and mass-based aggregate size distribution functions are found to evolve from unimodal to bimodal and finally to unimodal again. The different shapes of these two aggregate size distribution functions indicate that the total number and mass of aggregates are dominated by aggregates of different sizes. The PAH-soot condensation efficiency γ is found to have a small effect on soot formation when γ is larger than 0.5. However, the soot level and primary particle number density are significantly overpredicted if the PAH-soot condensation process is neglected. Generally, larger γ predicts lower soot level and primary particle number density. Further study on soot aggregate coagulation efficiency should be pursued and more experimental data on soot aggregate structure and size distribution are needed for improving the current sectional soot model and for better understanding the complex soot aggregation phenomenon.