基于对流尺度集合预报方法对一次暴雨过程预报的分析

为了更加直观和深入地理解对流尺度集合预报中的降水集合预报产品,以便进一步向预报员推广应用,本文开展了基于对流尺度集合预报方法对2021年8月28—29日的一次暴雨过程的预报性能分析,对集合预报的暴雨和大暴雨量级降水预报技巧进行了综合分析。结果表明：(1)不同集合成员降水预报结果的差异随着降水量级的增大越发明显,预报最优和最差的成员的TS评分相差0.3以上。(2)概率匹配平均预报对于暴雨和大暴雨量级降水的预报技巧优于控制预报,也优于集合平均。集合平均由于集合成员预报的平滑作用导致其对极端降水不敏感,因此,简单的集合平均不适合于大暴雨以上量级的极端降水预报。(3)从最小值预报到最大值预报,随着集合百分位的增大,命中率、空报率和频率偏差均逐渐增大,70%或者80%集合百分位预报的预报技巧最优,且优于集合平均和概率匹配平均预报。(4)对于重庆东北部偏西地区出现的大暴雨量级降水,较长预报时效集合概率预报均预报出了一定的降水概率,最长提前60 h,相应的最优的集合成员的降水预报与实况也较为接近。     

短期集合降水概率预报试验

以MM5模式作为试验模式, 通过选取不同的物理过程参数化方案产生8个集合成员, 分别用平均法、相关法和Rank法对2001年11月至2002年5月期间的22个降水个例进行短期集合降水概率预报试验。试验结果显示对小雨—大暴雨6类降水的概率预报, Rank法的综合预报效果明显好于相关法和平均法, 相关法的综合预报效果与平均法基本相同; 无论从均方误差角度还是从命中率和假警报率的相对大小角度, 对小雨、中雨、大雨和暴雨各量级以上降水的概率预报, Rank法的平均预报效果是三种方法中最好的, 相关法的平均预报效果与平均法相同; Rank法好于平均法的平均幅度从均方误差角度较大, 从命中率和假警报率的相对大小角度则较小。平均而言, 三种方法对各量级以上降水的概率预报都是有技巧预报, 对量级小的降水的概率预报技巧高于对量级大的降水的概率预报技巧。     

ECMWF集合预报在安徽大别山区降水预报中的检验

利用2015年6月1日至8月31日ECMWF集合预报系统(EPS)51个成员的降水预报结果,基于安徽省大别山区12个代表站点1～3 d的逐12 h降水观测资料,采用TS评分、箱须图、泰勒图等方法,研究ECMWF集合预报降水结果在安徽省大别山区降水分级预报中的应用效果。主要结论如下:ECMWF集合降水预报中,08时起报的24 h降水量和20时起报的48 h降水量可参考性较大;降水分级检验中,晴雨预报正确率在70%以上,小雨和中雨的空报率较高,对大雨以上量级的预报能力相对较差;大型降水过程中,暴雨以上量级的预报需关注不同预报时效下降水量预报的变化趋势,个别成员对极端降水的表现也值得关注。     

GRAPES区域集合预报系统对登陆台风预报的检验评估

针对2015年7—9月登陆中国大陆沿海的台风,利用GRAPES-REPS区域集合预报资料和集合统计诊断分析方法,对登陆台风的移动路径、时间、地点、强度和降水等进行检验评估,以期为预报员应用GRAPES登陆台风概率预报提供依据。检验结果表明,(1)集合平均移动路径要优于控制预报,集合预报各成员登陆地点存在20~340 km差异,但实况登陆地点均能落在集合成员登陆地点中。(2)对24 h和48 h登陆地点误差而言,集合平均较控制预报更接近实况。(3)随着预报时间的趋近,集合平均、控制预报和集合成员登陆地点距离误差逐渐缩小,登陆地点空间位置预报也没有明显的系统性误差。(4)集合成员对台风登陆时间预报偏早,平均提前2.3 h。(5)在强度预报中,尽管最低气压和近中心最大风速存在登陆前偏弱而登陆后偏强的趋势,但登陆点预报值区间包含了实况观测值,表明GRAPES-REPS集合预报能够较好展示多种可能信息。(6)不同量级降水AROC评分为0.56~0.76,具有预报参考价值;另外AROC评分的高低及台风暴雨落区的准确性与台风登陆点和登陆时间误差密切相关。可见,GRAPES-REPS区域集合预报可以在台风登陆地点、时间、强度和降水预报等方面提供更多的预报不确定性信息,有助于做出正确的预报决策。      

集合预报产品在江苏省暴雨预报中的应用评估

利用2011—2015年6—8月TIGGE(THORPEX Interactive Grand Global Ensemble)数据集中欧洲中期天气预报中心(ECMWF,以下简称EC)的集合降水预报数据和江苏省70个基本站逐日24 h(20时至次日20时)降水数据,通过大量暴雨样本系统检验和评估了EC集合预报及多种后处理释用产品对江苏暴雨的预报能力。结果表明:作为集合预报的初级产品,集合平均对暴雨的预报存在明显的漏报率,TS预报评分尚不及EC确定性预报;集合预报不同成员间对暴雨的预报技巧差异大,其最优成员组合的预报能力显著优于EC确定性预报,表明集合预报具有较大的应用潜力;在多种集合预报后处理释用技术中,最大值、最优百分位、降水偏差订正频率匹配法、概率预报、集合异常预报法和杜-周排序法(最大值法)的平均TS评分均较高,超过10%,其次90%分位数、融合、融合-概率匹配和杜-周排序法(集合平均或中位值法)的预报效果也均优于EC确定性预报。集合中位值、概率匹配方法对江苏暴雨的预报评分低于集合平均预报,在暴雨预报上的参考价值相对较低。该评估结果进一步加深了对各集合预报产品区域暴雨预报能力的认识,为预报员更直接快速地选取有效的集合预报产品提供参考。     

暴雨集合预报-观测概率匹配订正法在四川盆地的应用研究

利用2008—2011年6—8月中国气象局T213全球集合预报24—240 h降水预报资料和四川盆地观测降水资料,提出四川盆地暴雨集合预报-观测概率匹配订正法。该方法将集合预报降水累积概率分布与观测降水累积概率分布进行概率匹配,对降水量为50 mm的集合预报平均值进行订正,获得暴雨预报订正值(A Calibrated Heavy Rainfall forecast value),累积降水概率分布拟合函数采用Gamma函数。选取2013年6月28日—7月10日进行独立样本暴雨预报试验,分析四川盆地暴雨预报订正值分布特征和订正前后降水检验评分变化,讨论该方法存在的若干局限性。结果显示:T213集合预报对四川盆地降水预报存在预报量较观测量级小、模式预报时效越长降水预报越弱等系统性偏差,暴雨集合预报-观测概率匹配订正值普遍小于50 mm,且随预报时效延长而逐渐减小,有效地订正了T213暴雨集合预报系统性误差;暴雨集合预报-观测概率匹配订正法对"有或无暴雨"二分类暴雨预报改善较明显,ETs评分获得提高,且漏报率和空报率有所降低。     

基于集合成员订正的强降水多模式集成预报

基于TIGGE资料集下欧洲中期天气预报中心（ECMWF）、日本气象厅（JMA）、英国气象局（UKMO）、美国国家环境预报中心（NCEP）和中国气象局（CMA）5个气象预报中心2016年5月1日—8月31日中国地区逐日起报预报时效为24~168 h的24 h累积降水量集合预报的结果,对各个集合预报成员进行了频率匹配法的订正,并对订正前后的多模式集成预报效果进行评估。结果表明:采用频率匹配法订正后的降水预报,有效改善了集合平均预报中强降水（日降水量25 mm以上）预报由平滑作用产生的量级偏小现象,使预报的降水量级更接近实况,但对降水落区预报改进不明显。基于卡尔曼滤波技术的集成预报效果优于基于线性回归的超级集合预报和消除偏差集合平均预报,对强降水落区的预报较单模式更优。基于集合成员订正的降水多模式集成预报在强降水的落区预报和降水中心的量级预报更接近实况,效果优于原始多模式集成预报与单模式结果。     

ECMWF集合预报在中国中部地区的降水概率预报性能评估

利用2013、2014年5-10月ECMWF集合预报系统(EPS)输出的降水预报资料,CMORPH(NOAA Climate Prediction Center M orphing M ethod)卫星与全国30000余个自动气象观测站的逐小时降水量融合资料,基于Brier评分、Talagrand分布、ROC(Relative operating characteristic)分析等方法,研究ECMWF集合预报对我国中部降水的概率预报性能。主要结论如下:(1)模式对小雨具有稳定的预报技巧,但预报概率偏大;对大雨以上量级降水的分辨能力不足,概率预报偏小。(2)Talagrand图整体表现为"U"型,模式对中等强度以上量级降水预报频次偏少;就不同量级降水的预报和观测频次一致程度来看,时效越长预报性能越稳定;第11天模式集合成员的发散度发生明显变化,Talagrand图呈"钟"型分布,预报评分显著下降。(3)预报日数越短,降水概率预报效果越好,平均而言,预报日数超过2天后,模式对12 h(24 h)小于30%(40%)的暴雨概率预报技巧低于气候预测。(4)模式24 h小雨命中率较12 h偏高,空报率偏低,预报技巧优于12 h;对暴雨来说,前6天12 h降水概率预报的ROC面积较24 h表现较好。     

2004年西南地区多物理集体合预报系统试验及初步检验

利用美国PSU／NCAR的高分辨率中尺度非静力MM5模式，选择不同的积云对流参数化方案和边界层方案，构造西南地区多物理集合预报系统，于2004年8月16～9月30日进行了准业务试验。对四川区域短期降水集合预报结果的检验表明，利用双线性插值方法获得的站点预报值较利用临近格点的降水平均值更具有实际参考价值；对比分析表明，对于小雨到暴雨量级的降水，集合预报优于大部分集合预报成员，对大于100mm以上的极端降水预报能力有待提高；分析显示，以Anthes-Kuo和Kain-Fritsch积云对流参数化方案构造的集合预报成员对四川区域暴雨以上量级的预报效果不明显，因而对集合预报系统中参数化方案的选取，集合预报成员的构成，还有待进一步试验分析与优化。     

2004年西南地区多物理集合预报系统试验及初步检验

利用美国PSU/NCAR的高分辨率中尺度非静力MM5模式,选择不同的积云对流参数化方案和边界层方案,构造西南地区多物理集合预报系统,于2004年8月16～9月30日进行了准业务试验.对四川区域短期降水集合预报结果的检验表明,利用双线性插值方法获得的站点预报值较利用临近格点的降水平均值更具有实际参考价值;对比分析表明,对于小雨到暴雨量级的降水,集合预报优于大部分集合预报成员,对大于100mm以上的极端降水预报能力有待提高;分析显示,以Anthes-Kuo和Kain-Fritsch积云对流参数化方案构造的集合预报成员对四川区域暴雨以上量级的预报效果不明显,因而对集合预报系统中参数化方案的选取,集合预报成员的构成,还有待进一步试验分析与优化.     

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS DATA OF AIR–SEA TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AND ITS VARIATION ACROSS SOUTH CHINA SEA IN THE PAST 35 YEARS

Using the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set(ICOADS) and ERA-Interim data, spatial distributions of air-sea temperature difference(ASTD) in the South China Sea(SCS) for the past 35 years are compared,and variations of spatial and temporal distributions of ASTD in this region are addressed using empirical orthogonal function decomposition and wavelet analysis methods. The results indicate that both ICOADS and ERA-Interim data can reflect actual distribution characteristics of ASTD in the SCS, but values of ASTD from the ERA-Interim data are smaller than those of the ICOADS data in the same region. In addition, the ASTD characteristics from the ERA-Interim data are not obvious inshore. A seesaw-type, north-south distribution of ASTD is dominant in the SCS; i.e., a positive peak in the south is associated with a negative peak in the north in November, and a negative peak in the south is accompanied by a positive peak in the north during April and May. Interannual ASTD variations in summer or autumn are decreasing. There is a seesaw-type distribution of ASTD between Beibu Bay and most of the SCS in summer, and the center of large values is in the Nansha Islands area in autumn. The ASTD in the SCS has a strong quasi-3a oscillation period in all seasons, and a quasi-11 a period in winter and spring. The ASTD is positively correlated with the Nio3.4 index in summer and autumn but negatively correlated in spring and winter.     

CHARACTERISTICS AND TRENDS OF CLIMATIC EXTREMES IN CHINA DURING 1959–2014

The spatial and temporal variations of daily maximum temperature(Tmax), daily minimum temperature(Tmin), daily maximum precipitation(Pmax) and daily maximum wind speed(WSmax) were examined in China using Mann-Kendall test and linear regression method. The results indicated that for China as a whole, Tmax, Tmin and Pmax had significant increasing trends at rates of 0.15℃ per decade, 0.45℃ per decade and 0.58 mm per decade,respectively, while WSmax had decreased significantly at 1.18 m·s~(-1) per decade during 1959—2014. In all regions of China, Tmin increased and WSmax decreased significantly. Spatially, Tmax increased significantly at most of the stations in South China(SC), northwestern North China(NC), northeastern Northeast China(NEC), eastern Northwest China(NWC) and eastern Southwest China(SWC), and the increasing trends were significant in NC, SC, NWC and SWC on the regional average. Tmin increased significantly at most of the stations in China, with notable increase in NEC, northern and southeastern NC and northwestern and eastern NWC. Pmax showed no significant trend at most of the stations in China, and on the regional average it decreased significantly in NC but increased in SC, NWC and the mid-lower Yangtze River valley(YR). WSmax decreased significantly at the vast majority of stations in China, with remarkable decrease in northern NC, northern and central YR, central and southern SC and in parts of central NEC and western NWC. With global climate change and rapidly economic development, China has become more vulnerable to climatic extremes and meteorological disasters, so more strategies of mitigation and/or adaptation of climatic extremes,such as environmentally-friendly and low-cost energy production systems and the enhancement of engineering defense measures are necessary for government and social publics.     

IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC LOW-FREQUENCY OSCILLATION ON THE IMMIGRATION OF NILAPARVATA LUGENS(STL) IN HUNAN AND JIANGXI PROVINCES

Various features of the atmospheric environment affect the number of migratory insects, besides their initial population. However, little is known about the impact of atmospheric low-frequency oscillation(10 to 90 days) on insect migration. A case study was conducted to ascertain the influence of low-frequency atmospheric oscillation on the immigration of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens(Stl), in Hunan and Jiangxi provinces. The results showed the following:(1) The number of immigrating N. lugens from April to June of 2007 through 2016 mainly exhibited a periodic oscillation of 10 to 20 days.(2) The 10-20 d low-frequency number of immigrating N. lugens was significantly correlated with a low-frequency wind field and a geopotential height field at 850 h Pa.(3) During the peak phase of immigration, southwest or south winds served as a driving force and carried N. lugens populations northward, and when in the back of the trough and the front of the ridge, the downward airflow created a favorable condition for N. lugens to land in the study area. In conclusion, the northward migration of N. lugens was influenced by a low-frequency atmospheric circulation based on the analysis of dynamics. This study was the first research connecting atmospheric low-frequency oscillation to insect migration.     

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC CONDITIONS BEFORE THE OCCURRENCE OF TWO TYPES OF EL NIO EVENTS

The atmospheric and oceanic conditions before the onset of EP El Ni?o and CP El Ni?o in nearly 30 years are compared and analyzed by using 850 hPa wind, 20℃ isotherm depth, sea surface temperature and the Wheeler and Hendon index. The results are as follows: In the western equatorial Pacific, the occurrence of the anomalously strong westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Its intensity is far stronger than that of the CP El Ni?o. Two months before the El Ni?o, the anomaly westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o have extended to the eastern Pacific region, while the westerly wind anomaly of the CP El Ni?o can only extend to the west of the dateline three months before the El Ni?o and later stay there. Unlike the EP El Ni?o, the CP El Ni?o is always associated with easterly wind anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific before its onset. The thermocline depth anomaly of the EP El Ni?o can significantly move eastward and deepen. In addition, we also find that the evolution of thermocline is ahead of the development of the sea surface temperature for the EP El Ni?o. The strong MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o in the western and central Pacific is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Measured by the standard deviation of the zonal wind square, the intensity of MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o is significantly greater than that of the CP El Ni?o before the onset of El Ni?o.     

Could the Recent Taal Volcano Eruption Trigger an El Ni?o and Lead to Eurasian Warming?

正The Taal Volcano in Luzon is one of the most active and dangerous volcanoes of the Philippines. A recent eruption occurred on 12 January 2020(Fig. 1a), and this volcano is still active with the occurrence of volcanic earthquakes. The eruption has become a deep concern worldwide, not only for its damage on local society, but also for potential hazardous consequences on the Earth's climate and environment.     

ANALYSIS OF “BIMODAL PATTERN” STORM ACTIVITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAY OF BENGAL

Storms that occur at the Bay of Bengal (BoB) are of a bimodal pattern, which is different from that of the other sea areas. By using the NCEP, SST and JTWC data, the causes of the bimodal pattern storm activity of the BoB are diagnosed and analyzed in this paper. The result shows that the seasonal variation of general atmosphere circulation in East Asia has a regulating and controlling impact on the BoB storm activity, and the “bimodal period” of the storm activity corresponds exactly to the seasonal conversion period of atmospheric circulation. The minor wind speed of shear spring and autumn contributed to the storm, which was a crucial factor for the generation and occurrence of the “bimodal pattern” storm activity in the BoB. The analysis on sea surface temperature (SST) shows that the SSTs of all the year around in the BoB area meet the conditions required for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). However, the SSTs in the central area of the bay are higher than that of the surrounding areas in spring and autumn, which facilitates the occurrence of a “two-peak” storm activity pattern. The genesis potential index (GPI) quantifies and reflects the environmental conditions for the generation of the BoB storms. For GPI, the intense low-level vortex disturbance in the troposphere and high-humidity atmosphere are the sufficient conditions for storms, while large maximum wind velocity of the ground vortex radius and small vertical wind shear are the necessary conditions of storms.     

LOW-FREQUENCY CIRCULATION AND EXTENDED-RANGE FORECAST IN CONNECTION WITH AUTUMN EXTREME HEAVY RAINFALL PROCESS IN HAINAN

Observed daily precipitation data from the National Meteorological Observatory in Hainan province and daily data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis-2 dataset from 1981 to 2014 are used to analyze the relationship between Hainan extreme heavy rainfall processes in autumn (referred to as EHRPs) and 10–30 d low-frequency circulation. Based on the key low-frequency signals and the NCEP Climate Forecast System Version 2 (CFSv2) model forecasting products, a dynamical-statistical method is established for the extended-range forecast of EHRPs. The results suggest that EHRPs have a close relationship with the 10–30 d low-frequency oscillation of 850 hPa zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north, and that they basically occur during the trough phase of the low-frequency oscillation of zonal wind. The latitudinal propagation of the low-frequency wave train in the middle-high latitudes and the meridional propagation of the low-frequency wave train along the coast of East Asia contribute to the ‘north high (cold), south low (warm)’ pattern near Hainan Island, which results in the zonal wind over Hainan Island and to its north reaching its trough, consequently leading to EHRPs. Considering the link between low-frequency circulation and EHRPs, a low-frequency wave train index (LWTI) is defined and adopted to forecast EHRPs by using NCEP CFSv2 forecasting products. EHRPs are predicted to occur during peak phases of LWTI with value larger than 1 for three or more consecutive forecast days. Hindcast experiments for EHRPs in 2015–2016 indicate that EHRPs can be predicted 8–24 d in advance, with an average period of validity of 16.7 d.     

AN ATTRIBUTION ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION IN THE BEIJING–TIANJIN–HEBEI REGION UNDER CLIMATE CHANGE

Based on the measurements obtained at 64 national meteorological stations in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region between 1970 and 2013, the potential evapotranspiration (ET0) in this region was estimated using the Penman–Monteith equation and its sensitivity to maximum temperature (Tmax), minimum temperature (Tmin), wind speed (Vw), net radiation (Rn) and water vapor pressure (Pwv) was analyzed, respectively. The results are shown as follows. (1) The climatic elements in the BTH region underwent significant changes in the study period. Vw and Rn decreased significantly, whereas Tmin, Tmax and Pwv increased considerably. (2) In the BTH region, ET0 also exhibited a significant decreasing trend, and the sensitivity of ET0 to the climatic elements exhibited seasonal characteristics. Of all the climatic elements, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv in the fall and winter and Rn in the spring and summer. On the annual scale, ET0 was most sensitive to Pwv, followed by Rn, Vw, Tmax and Tmin. In addition, the sensitivity coefficient of ET0 with respect to Pwv had a negative value for all the areas, indicating that increases in Pwv can prevent ET0 from increasing. (3) The sensitivity of ET0 to Tmin and Tmax was significantly lower than its sensitivity to other climatic elements. However, increases in temperature can lead to changes in Pwv and Rn. The temperature should be considered the key intrinsic climatic element that has caused the "evaporation paradox" phenomenon in the BTH region.     

Revisiting the Concentration Observations and Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Ammonia

正While China’s Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan on particulate matter since 2013 has reduced sulfate significantly, aerosol ammonium nitrate remains high in East China. As the high nitrate abundances are strongly linked with ammonia, reducing ammonia emissions is becoming increasingly important to improve the air quality of China. Although satellite data provide evidence of substantial increases in atmospheric ammonia concentrations over major agricultural regions, long-term surface observation of ammonia concentrations are sparse. In addition, there is still no consensus on