医疗保健相关性肺炎的经验性治疗

医疗保健相关性肺炎(HCAP)是美国胸科学会与感染病学会(ATS/IDSA)2005年发布的成人医院获得性肺炎(HAP)、呼吸机相关性肺炎(VAP)和医疗保健相关性肺炎治疗指南中提出的新概念。本文主要从治疗场所的选择、治疗策略以及初始经验性抗菌药物选择等方面简要综述了HCAP的经验性治疗推荐,并介绍几种可能会成为治疗HCAP的新选择的抗菌药物,以期为临床医生治疗HCAP患者提供有益的借鉴。     

降钙素原在医院获得性肺炎和呼吸机相关性肺炎的诊断和抗感染管理中的应用价值

医院获得性肺炎(HAP)和呼吸机相关性肺炎(VAP)是我国现患率居第一位的医院感染性疾病。国内外相关指南相继进行了更新,旨在提高HAP/VAP诊断和治疗水平,改善患者的结局,但我们仍然面临诸多挑战。降钙素原(PCT)是较C反应蛋白(CRP)更特异的感染相关生物学标志物,对重症细菌感染和脓毒症具有反应快速、特异性高的优点,动态监测PCT可指导HAP/VAP的诊断及抗菌药物治疗的疗程。     

重症肺炎初期的抗生素降阶梯治疗策略

重症肺炎是指除肺炎常见呼吸系统症状外,尚有呼吸衰竭和其它系统明显受累的表现[1]。重症肺炎既可发生于社区获得性肺炎(CAP),亦可发生于医院获得性肺炎(HAP),在HAP中以医疗机构相关性肺炎(HCAP)、重症监护病房(ICU)里的获得性肺炎和呼吸机相关肺炎(VAP)常见。如何对重症肺炎进     

医院获得性肺炎的治疗及预防进展

医院获得性肺炎(hospital-acquired pneumonia,HAP)是一种下呼吸道感染性肺炎,未接受有创机械通气的患者在入院后48 h以上发生[1]。呼吸机相关性肺炎(ventilator-associated pneumonia,VAP)是气管插管或气管切开患者在接受机械通气48 h后,或撤机、或拔管后48 h内出现的肺炎[2]。2018年,我国发布了《中国成人医院获得性肺炎与呼吸机相关性肺炎诊断和治疗指南(2018年版)》,明确规定VAP属于HAP的特殊类型,HAP和VAP的关键区别在于是医院获得性感染和机械通气的应用。HAP是我国最常见的医院获得性感染,HAP延长患者住院时间,导致患者病死率升高,加重了国家和家庭的医疗经济负担。HAP的全球发病率为每1000例住院患者中有5~20例[3]。在我国,住院患者中HAP的发生率为3.22%~5.22%。HAP患者占ICU患者近25%,非ICU患者HAP患病率也在增加[3-6]。目前HAP致死率仍旧很高,尚且没有明确的临床诊断和特别有效的治疗方法。本文对HAP的治疗、预防进行综述。     

口腔呼吸道致病菌定植与老年院内获得性肺炎的相关性研究进展

<正>医院内获得性肺炎(HAP)指患者入院时不存在、也不处于感染潜伏期,而是入院≥48 h在医院内发生的肺炎,包括呼吸机相关性肺炎(VAP)和健康护理相关性肺炎(HCAP)。HAP有着极高的发病率,在我国占院内感染的30%~50%[1-2],居各种院内感染首位。而在美国则占10%~15%[3],仅次于泌尿道感染。不仅使得医疗成本大大增加(可使住院时间延长1倍),更严重危害患者健康,增加病死     

不同类型老年吸入性肺炎的临床特点、治疗及转归

目的 比较老年吸入性肺炎中社区获得性肺炎(CAP)、医疗相关性肺炎(HCAP)及医院获得性肺炎(HAP)(包括呼吸机相关性吸入性肺炎)的临床特点、治疗及转归.方法 收集2005年1月至2010年12月北京第二炮兵总医院呼吸科住院的216例老年吸入性肺炎患者病例,分析其临床特点、治疗及转归.结果 三组患者皆以男性居多,且HAP组患者男性比例较其他两组为多(P=0.032),HAP组患者年龄较其他两组为大(P=0.024)；三组患者均有3～4种合并症,合并症的种类和数量并无显著差异；三组间外周血白细胞计数、中性粒细胞比例及X线检查无显著差异；和CAP、HCAP患者相比,HAP患者革兰阴性杆菌感染率尤为高,需联合应用广谱的抗生素药物,特别是针对革兰阴性杆菌药物；HAP组留置胃管、行灌洗吸痰例数要高于CAP组与HCAP组(P＜0.001)；HAP组的治愈率较CAP组与HCAP组低(P＜0.05),死亡率较CAP组高(P=0.004).结论 三种类型老年吸入性肺炎在人口学资料、临床表现上差异不明显,但在治疗及转归等方面有明显差异,应加强对不同类型老年吸入性肺炎的理解和认识,以利于区别化的治疗.     

老年人呼吸机相关性肺炎的危险因素及其防治策略

医院获得性肺炎(hospital acquired pneumoma，HAP)是指入院48小时后发生的肺炎。呼吸机相关性肺炎ventilator-associated pneumonia，VAP)是指应用呼吸机辅助机械通气48小时后发生的肺炎，是机械通气的常见并发症，也是医院获得性肺炎的一个重要组成部分。     

枣庄地区肺炎病原菌分析

目的分析不同肺炎的病原菌感染情况,以提高其治疗效果。方法收集2009年5月～2011年11月枣庄市249例住院肺炎患者的临床资料,分析比较社区获得性肺炎(CAP)、医院获得性肺炎(HAP)及医疗机构相关性肺炎(HCAP)的病原菌感染情况。结果共培养出病原菌465株,其中CAP患者共212株,HCAP患者共97株,HAP患者共156株。CAP患者感染居前六位病原菌为肺炎链球菌46株(21.70%),肺炎支原体35株(16.50%),流感嗜血杆菌31株(14.62%),肺炎衣原体16株(7.55%),铜绿假单胞菌9株(4.25%),金黄色葡萄球菌6株(2.83%);HCAP患者前六位病原菌为铜绿假单胞菌31株(31.96%),鲍曼不动杆菌13株(13.40%),白色念珠菌8株(8.25%),肺炎克雷伯菌7株(7.22%),大肠埃希菌6株(6.19%),金黄色葡萄球菌5株(5.15%);HAP患者前六位病原菌为铜绿假单胞菌59株(37.82%),肺炎克雷伯菌46株(29.49%),白色念珠菌7株(4.49%),鲍曼不动杆菌6株(3.85%),金黄色葡萄球菌5株(3.21%),大肠埃希菌5株(3.21%)。结论分析不同类型肺炎的病原菌、合理经验性地使用抗感染药物,有利于提高治愈率、降低病死率、减少医疗费用及耐药性的发生。     

不同类型老年吸入性肺炎的病原学、抗生素应用及临床转归

目的 比较老年社区获得性吸入性肺炎(CAP)、医疗相关性吸入性肺炎(HCAP)及医院获得性吸入性肺炎(HAP,包括呼吸机相关性吸入性肺炎)三者病原学、抗生素应用及治疗转归的关系.方法 收集2005年1月一2010年12月北京二炮总医院呼吸科住院的216例老年吸人性肺炎患者病例,分析其病原学结果、抗生素应用的及治疗转归.结果 三种吸入性肺炎的病原学有显著差异,与CAP和HCAP相比,HAP患者G-杆菌的感染比例明显增多(P<0.001);抗生素应用方案有明显差异,CAP组病人未调整抗生素应用比率明显高于HCAP组与HAP组(P<0.001);抗生素应用策略不同,所致死亡率有明显差异,以升阶梯方案为最高,以降阶梯治疗为最低(P=0.03).结论 三种吸入性肺炎在感染病原菌种类、抗生素应用策略及治疗转归上有明显差异,应根据不同类型的老年吸入性肺炎特点合理经验性使用抗菌药物.     

老年卫生保健相关性肺炎的临床特点及病原学药敏分析

目的探讨老年卫生保健相关性肺炎(HCAP)的临床和病原学特点。方法对102例HCAP患者的临床资料和痰培养资料进行回顾性分析。结果 102例患者中共检出HCAP致病菌103株,分析得出老年HCAP最常见的病原菌为铜绿假单胞菌29.1%,其次为肺炎克雷伯菌13.5%、真菌11.7%、鲍曼不动菌10.7%、金黄色葡萄球菌9.7%,并且细菌耐药率高。结论老年HCAP的致病菌以革兰阴性杆菌为主且呈多重耐药现象,真菌发病率高,病死率高,应合理使用抗生素及综合治疗方法。     

Epidemiology and outcomes of health-care-associated pneumonia: results from a large US database of culture-positive pneumonia

CONTEXT: Traditionally, pneumonia developing in patients outside the hospital is categorized as community acquired, even if these patients have been receiving health care in an outpatient facility. Accumulating evidence suggests that health-care-associated infections are distinct from those that are truly community acquired. OBJECTIVE: To characterize the microbiology and outcomes among patients with culture-positive community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), health-care-associated pneumonia (HCAP), hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP).Design and setting: A retrospective cohort study based on a large US inpatient database. PATIENTS: A total of 4,543 patients with culture-positive pneumonia admitted into 59 US hospitals between January 1, 2002, and December 31, 2003, and recorded in a large, multi-institutional database of US acute-care hospitals (Cardinal Health-Atlas Research Database; Cardinal Health Clinical Knowledge Services; Marlborough, MA).Main measures: Culture data (respiratory and blood), in-hospital mortality, length of hospital stay (LOS), and billed hospital charges. RESULTS: Approximately one half of hospitalized patients with pneumonia had CAP, and > 20% had HCAP. Staphylococcus aureus was a major pathogen in all pneumonia types, with its occurrence markedly higher in the non-CAP groups than in the CAP group. Mortality rates associated with HCAP (19.8%) and HAP (18.8%) were comparable (p > 0.05), and both were significantly higher than that for CAP (10%, all p < 0.0001) and lower than that for VAP (29.3%, all p < 0.0001). Mean LOS varied significantly with pneumonia category (in order of ascending values: CAP, HCAP, HAP, and VAP; all p < 0.0001). Similarly, mean hospital charge varied significantly with pneumonia category (in order of ascending value: CAP, HCAP, HAP, and VAP; all p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: The present analysis justified HCAP as a new category of pneumonia. S aureus was a major pathogen of all pneumonias with higher rates in non-CAP pneumonias. Compared with CAP, non-CAP was associated with more severe disease, higher mortality rate, greater LOS, and increased cost.     

Clinical practice guidelines for hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults

Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP) and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) are important causes of morbidity and mortality, with mortality rates approaching 62%. HAP and VAP are the second most common cause of nosocomial infection overall, but are the most common cause documented in the intensive care unit setting. In addition, HAP and VAP produce the highest mortality associated with nosocomial infection. As a result, evidence-based guidelines were prepared detailing the epidemiology, microbial etiology, risk factors and clinical manifestations of HAP and VAP. Furthermore, an approach based on the available data, expert opinion and current practice for the provision of care within the Canadian health care system was used to determine risk stratification schemas to enable appropriate diagnosis, antimicrobial management and nonantimicrobial management of HAP and VAP. Finally, prevention and risk-reduction strategies to reduce the risk of acquiring these infections were collated. Future initiatives to enhance more rapid diagnosis and to effect better treatment for resistant pathogens are necessary to reduce morbidity and improve survival.     

Neumonía nosocomial

The hospital acquired pneumonia (HAP) is one of the most common infections acquired among hospitalised patients. Within the HAP, the ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is the most common nosocomial infection complication among patients with acute respiratory failure. The VAP and HAP are associated with increased mortality and increased hospital costs. The rise in HAP due to antibiotic-resistant bacteria also causes an increase in the incidence of inappropriate empirical antibiotic therapy, with an associated increased risk of hospital mortality. It is very important to know the most common organisms responsible for these infections in each hospital and each Intensive Care Unit, as well as their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns, in order to reduce the incidence of inappropriate antibiotic therapy and improve the prognosis of patients. Additionally, clinical strategies aimed at the prevention of HAP and VAP should be employed in hospital settings caring for patients at risk for these infections.     

婴幼儿呼吸机相关性肺炎致病菌分析

目的调查儿科重症监护病房(ICU)应用人工气道进行机械通气的患儿伴呼吸机相关性肺炎的致病菌群及药敏情况。方法对70例行机械通气伴呼吸机相关性肺炎的患儿痰培养分离出的75株致病菌进行药敏试验。结果革兰阳性菌占18·6%。革兰阴性菌占72·0%,真菌占9·3%,分别列前3位的是肺炎克雷伯杆菌(36·0%)、金黄色葡萄球菌(16·0%)大肠杆菌属(12·0%)。药敏结果表明:大多数G-菌对常用的抗菌药物已表现出较高的耐药率。结论呼吸机相关性肺炎的病原菌仍以革兰阴性菌为主。对机械通气患儿应进行全面预防、加强监护、检测病原菌、合理使用抗生素,才能有效控制呼吸机相关性肺炎。     

老年人肺孢子虫所致院内获得性肺炎

目的提高临床对老年人非人类免疫性缺陷病毒（HIV）感染者肺孢子虫所致院内获得性肺炎（HAP）的认识。方法回顾性分析收治的5例非HIV感染者肺孢子虫所致HAP的临床资料。结果5例患者,男性4例,女性1例,年龄84～96岁,均有严重的多种基础疾病,4例因肺部感染诱发严重呼吸衰竭,经人工气道长期应用机械通气,机械通气期间反复发生机械通气相关性肺炎（VAP）,并因此长期反复应用多种广谱抗生素,1例为脑血管病后遗症伴有意识障碍反复多次发生HAP,亦反复应用多种广谱抗生素。5例患者均有长期发热,均伴有明显的呼吸道症状,4例肺部可闻及湿？？音及干鸣音,另1例仅闻及吸气相干鸣音。5例患者中有3例X线胸片显示双肺弥漫性斑片影,1例为右肺大片状阴影,左下肺少许斑片状阴影,另1例为右肺大片状阴影;1例有网状纹理,3例有双侧胸水,1例为单侧胸水。5例患者中3例痰找肺孢子虫和肺孢子虫PCR阳性;另2例为痰肺孢子虫PCR阳性,痰找肺孢子虫阴性。5例患者HIV抗体均阴性;5例患者中有3例辅助性T淋巴细胞（CD4）减少,CD4/CD8比值降低。确诊肺孢子虫肺炎（PCP）后,4例患者中在原有治疗的基础上加用或单用复方磺胺甲恶唑片,3例治愈,复查痰找肺孢子虫和肺孢子虫PCR均阴性,1例应用复方磺胺甲恶唑片3 d后因原有肾功能不全恶化而停用,2个月后因多脏器功能衰竭死亡。1例未治死亡。结论老年、反复应用广谱抗生素、血CD4减少者,即使没有HIV感染,在长期应用呼吸机期间或反复发生HAP,发生肺孢子虫所致重症HAP是可能的,死亡率高。     

Ventilator-associated pneumonia complicating the acute respiratory distress syndrome

Pulmonary infections span a wide spectrum, ranging from self-limited processes (e.g., tracheobronchitis) to life-threatening infections including both community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP). Together, pneumonia and influenza rank as the sixth leading cause of death in the United States and lead all other infectious diseases in this respect. Pneumonia is the second-most-common hospital-acquired infection in the United States, accounting for 17.8% of all hospital-acquired infections and 40,000 to 70,000 deaths per year. HAP is the most common nosocomial infection occurring in patients requiring mechanical ventilation, developing in 6.5% of patients after 10 days and in 28% of patients after 30 days of ventilatory support. Patients acquiring HAP have a greater risk of mortality than comparably ill ventilated patients who do not develop pneumonia. Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) specifically refers to a bacterial pneumonia developing in patients with acute respiratory failure who have been receiving mechanical ventilation for at least 48 hours. The etiologic bacteriologic agents associated with VAP typically differ based on the timing of the occurrence of the infection relative to the start of mechanical ventilation. VAP occurring within 96 hours of the onset of mechanical ventilation is usually due to antibiotic-sensitive bacteria that colonize the patient prior to hospital admission (e.g., Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenza, oxacillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus). VAP developing after 96 hours of ventilatory support is more often associated with antibiotic-resistant bacteria including oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Acinetobacter species and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, more recent data suggest that hospitalization and exposure to antibiotics prior to the start of mechanical ventilation are important risk factors for the occurrence of VAP attributed to antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Therefore, these risk factors should be considered when deciding on an appropriate empiric antibiotic regimen regardless of the onset of VAP. VAP and catheter-associated bloodstream infections are the leading causes of infection acquired in the intensive care unit (ICU) setting. Patients in the ICU have rates of HAP that are as much as five to ten times higher than the rates in general hospital wards. Additionally, like nosocomial bloodstream infections, VAP is associated with an attributable mortality beyond that accounted for by patients' severity of illness. The attributable mortality associated with VAP appears to be greatest for "high-risk' antibiotic-resistant bacteria including Pseudomonas aeruginosa and oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. The greater hospital mortality associated with these "high-risk' pathogens has been attributed to the virulence of these bacteria and the increased occurrence of inadequate initial antibiotic treatment of VAP due to the presence of antibiotic resistance. This review provides an overview of the clinical importance of VAP. We then describe how this nosocomial infection influences the management and outcomes of patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).     

医院获得性肺炎发病时间对病原构成影响的回顾性队列研究

目的　了解不同时间发生的医院获得性肺炎(HAP)病原体构成及抗菌药物敏感性的差异。方法　在北京、上海和广州6所大学教学医院回顾调查2001年1月至2003年12月间有呼吸道标本培养致病菌阳性的HAP病例,记录患者一般资料、高危因素、HAP严重程度及致病菌药敏试验结果。所有资料用SPSS120统计软件进行汇总分析,比较早、中、晚发HAP的危险因素、病原体构成及其抗菌药物敏感性的差异。结果　共有562例患者入选,入院时间≤5d发病者(早发)136例,6~14d发病者(中发)326例,≥15d发病者(晚发)100例。不同时间发生的HAP的高危因素有所差异:抗生素使用率由早期的684%增至晚期的880%(P=0002),入住重症监护室(ICU)由294%增加至460%(P=003),免疫功能受损由15%增至150%(P=0001)。分离出致病菌918株,其中铜绿假单胞菌(171株)、金黄色葡萄球菌(148株)、不动杆菌(148株)、克雷伯菌(132株)和肠杆菌属细菌(81株)为最多见的前5位致病菌。统计学分析显示不同发病时间的HAP中,病原体构成比较有统计学意义(P<005):早发性HAP以克雷伯菌最常见(183%),肺炎链球菌(24%)和嗜血杆菌(43%)占有一定比例;而晚发性HAP以铜绿假单胞菌(242%)和耐甲氧西林的金黄色葡萄球菌(MRSA)(193%)为主,未发现肺炎链球菌和嗜血杆菌。HAP病原体对头孢曲松的敏     

Health care-associated pneumonia requiring hospital admission: epidemiology, antibiotic therapy, and clinical outcomes

BACKGROUND: Health care-associated pneumonia (HCAP) has been proposed as a new category of respiratory infection. However, limited data exist to validate this entity. We aimed to ascertain the epidemiology, causative organisms, antibiotic susceptibilities, and outcomes of and empirical antibiotic therapy for HCAP requiring hospitalization. METHODS: Observational analysis of a prospective cohort of nonseverely immunosuppressed hospitalized adults with pneumonia. Patients who had recent contact with the health care system through nursing homes, home health care programs, hemodialysis clinics, or prior hospitalization were considered to have HCAP. RESULTS: Of 727 cases of pneumonia, 126 (17.3%) were HCAP and 601 (82.7%) were community acquired. Compared with patients with community-acquired pneumonia, patients with HCAP were older (mean age, 69.5 vs 63.7 years; P < .001), had greater comorbidity (95.2% vs 74.7%; P < .001), and were more commonly classified into high-risk pneumonia severity index classes (67.5% vs 48.8%; P < .001). The most common causative organism was Streptococcus pneumoniae in both groups (27.8% vs 33.9%). Drug-resistant pneumococci were more frequently encountered in cases of HCAP. Legionella pneumophila was less common in patients with HCAP (2.4% vs 8.8%; P = .01). Aspiration pneumonia (20.6% vs 3.0%; P < .001), Haemophilus influenzae (11.9% vs 6.0%; P = .02), Staphylococcus aureus (2.4% vs 0%; P = .005), and gram-negative bacilli (4.0% vs 1.0%; P = .03) were more frequent in HCAP. Patients with HCAP more frequently received an initial inappropriate empirical antibiotic therapy (5.6% vs 2.0%; P = .03). The overall case-fatality rate (< 30 days) was higher in patients with HCAP (10.3% vs 4.3%; P = .007). CONCLUSIONS: At present, a substantial number of patients initially seen with pneumonia in the emergency department have HCAP. These patients require a targeted approach when selecting empirical antibiotic therapy.