妊娠期高血糖的诊断及管理

妊娠期高血糖（HIP）母儿不良结局明显增加，不仅近期并发症增加，远期发展为糖尿病风险也明显增加。妊娠期高血糖包括孕前糖尿病合并妊娠（PGDM）和妊娠期糖尿病（GDM）。我国二孩政策全面放开后，高危人群比例增加，HIP孕妇比例将进一步增加。对于妊娠期高血糖的筛查、诊断、管理策略及母儿的远期随访等问题均应引起关注。     

妊娠期糖尿病流行现状

妊娠期糖尿病（gestational diabetes mellitus,GDM）是妊娠前糖代谢正常,妊娠期才出现的糖尿病,是由妊娠诱发的暂时性糖尿病。虽然其血糖升高程度不及糖尿病合并妊娠,但对母儿健康危害较大。GDM对母儿的近期影响包括母亲妊娠并发症增加,如妊娠期高血压疾病、羊水过多等,以及胎儿发生巨大儿、肩难产、新生儿高胆红素血症等风险增加。其对母儿健康的远期威胁主要是母亲产后及子代生后远期2型糖尿病（T2DM）及代谢综合征发病风险增加。近年来,GDM发病在全球逐年升高,其对人类健康威胁也越来越大。有学者认为,GDM流行是导致T2DM及代谢综合征在全球肆虐的重要原因之一。本文基于国际糖尿病联合会（International Diabetes Federation,IDF）的官方文件和中国大陆近年较大规模流行病学报道,汇总GDM在全球以及我国的流行现状,为全面了解GDM的人群健康危害提供流行病学依据。     

妊娠期糖尿病对女性远期糖代谢异常的影响

妊娠期糖尿病（GDM）是妊娠期常见合并症,血糖控制不佳者可导致严重的不良妊娠结局,威胁母儿健康。虽然患者产后大多可以恢复正常糖代谢水平,但有GDM史的患者再次妊娠发生糖代谢异常的风险增加,且随着生存时间的延长,发生肥胖、糖尿病和心血管疾病的风险也会明显增加。加强GDM患者产后糖代谢的研究,有助于减低女性远期糖尿病发生的风险。     

血糖控制不佳与不良妊娠结局

妊娠期高血糖是最常见的一种妊娠并发症。孕期血糖控制不佳，会增加不良妊娠结局的发生，包括近远期的各种母儿风险。文章拟通过介绍血糖控制不佳与不良妊娠结局的关系，提高医护人员和妊娠合并糖尿病患者对妊娠期高血糖危害的认识。     

进一步提高对妊娠合并糖尿病的研究水平

妊娠合并糖尿病是妊娠期最常见的内科合并症之一,它包括孕前患有糖尿病者妊娠（pre-gestational diabetes mellitus,PGDM,一般称之为糖尿病合并妊娠）和妊娠期糖尿病（gestational diabetes mellitus, GDM）.妊娠合并糖尿病会导致母儿并发症明显增加. 自胰岛素在临床开始应用之后，通过严格控制糖尿病孕妇的血糖，加强孕期监测，妊娠合并糖尿病的母儿预后均有了明显改善，20世纪80年代初国外已经有报道，如果将孕期血糖控制到正常范围，围产儿死亡率就能够降低到同孕龄而糖代谢正常孕妇的水平。     

2004年美国糖尿病学会妊娠期糖尿病处理建议

妊娠期糖尿病(GDM)对母儿危害较大。美国糖尿病学会于2004年发布了最新的GDM处理建议：妊娠早期行发病风险评估，适时行糖筛查及口服糖耐量试验(OGTT)明确诊断，妊娠期积极控制血糖，适时终止妊娠，减少母儿合并症。产后随访并评价母儿远期发生糖尿病的危险。     

2022年中国妊娠期高血糖诊治指南与美国糖尿病学会妊娠合并糖尿病诊治指南比较

在全球范围内，妊娠合并糖尿病/妊娠期高血糖的发病率不断攀升，不仅增加围生期母儿不良结局的风险，而且增加母体和子代远期患代谢性疾病的风险。对妊娠合并糖尿病的诊治目前各国仍存在诸多争议。2022年我国中华医学会（Chinese Medical Association，CMA）、2021年美国糖尿病学会（American Diabetes Association，ADA）分别发布了最新指南，目的在于为妊娠合并糖尿病的诊断和治疗提供最新建议，现就两份指南在疾病分类、诊断、孕前咨询及孕前保健、生活方式和行为管理、妊娠期降糖药物治疗、血糖的监测、母儿并发症、产后管理与产后随访、产科管理这9个方面进行对比解读，探寻两份指南间异同的可能原因，为临床医生的实践提供参考。     

2004年美国糖尿病学会妊娠期糖尿病处理建议

妊娠期糖尿病(GDM)对母儿危害较大.美国糖尿病学会于2004年发布了最新的GDM处理建议:妊娠早期行发病风险评估,适时行糖筛查及口服糖耐量试验(OGTT)明确诊断,妊娠期积极控制血糖,适时终止妊娠,减少母儿合并症.产后随访并评价母儿远期发生糖尿病的危险.     

妊娠期胰岛素的应用

无论妊娠合并糖尿病或者妊娠期糖尿病（GDM），在妊娠期均应强调早期治疗、综合治疗、治疗措施个体化的原则。GDM一经确诊，应加强母儿监测，及时干预，控制妊娠期血糖，以降低母儿并发症，改善围生儿结局，减少或延缓产妇在产后发展成为2型糖尿病（T2DM）的可能，并且预防子代T2DM的发生。     

妊娠期合并糖尿病对胎儿的近远期影响

近年来，妊娠期糖尿病的发生率有逐年增高的趋势。妊娠期糖尿病不但使孕产妇的流产、早产、羊水过多、妊娠期高血压疾病等诸多并发症和不良后果增加，对胎儿也产生一系列近、远期的影响：     

Twin pregnancy outcomes for women with gestational diabetes mellitus compared with glucose tolerant women

OBJECTIVE: To examine pregnancy outcomes for women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and a twin pregnancy compared with glucose tolerant women with a twin pregnancy. DESIGN: Comparison of selected pregnancy outcomes. SETTING: Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia. POPULATION: Women with GDM seen over a 10-year period by an endocrinologist, and women from a selected year of an obstetric database including Wollongong and Shellharbour Hospitals. METHODS: Examination of pregnancy outcome data from the two sources. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Fetal birthweights and method of delivery. RESULTS: There were 28 GDM women with a twin pregnancy from 1229 consecutive referrals (2.3%) of women with GDM for medical management. For comparison there were 29 glucose tolerant women with twin pregnancies evaluable who had delivered over a 1-year period. For the women with GDM and a twin pregnancy there were no significant differences in demographics or outcomes except for a higher rate of elective Caesarean section. CONCLUSION: The higher rate of Caesarean section appeared to be related to the combination of a twin pregnancy and GDM rather than the twin pregnancy or the GDM independently.     

两种标准诊断妊娠期糖尿病妊娠结局的对比观察

目的对比教科书标准和国际妊娠与糖尿病研究组织（IADPSG）标准诊断妊娠期糖尿病的母婴结局。方法 2011年至2012年在煤炭总医院诊断并分娩的妊娠期糖尿病患者246例,按不同诊断标准分为两组,教科书组（73例）和IADPSG组（173例）,并给予相应的临床干预,对比两组患者的母婴结局。结果教科书标准诊断GDM的诊断率为9.61%,IADPSG标准为14.62%,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。比较两组患者胎膜早破的发生率：教科书组为38.36%,IADPSG组为23.12%,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。而比较两组患者胰岛素使用率、孕期体重增长、剖宫产率及巨大儿、妊娠期高血压、羊水过多、产后出血、胎儿宫内窘迫、新生儿高胆红素血症、新生儿低血糖发生率差异均无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。结论 IADPSG标准诊断妊娠期糖尿病,可以提高诊断率,改善不良母婴结局。     

Irisin as an early marker for predicting gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective study

Objective: The objective of this study is to evaluate maternal serum irisin levels in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy in women diagnosed with and without gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).

Methods: We performed a prospective, nested case–control study in 258 pregnant women who were enrolled at the time of the first prenatal visit (6–11th weeks of gestation) and followed until delivery. Among the entire population, we selected 20 women who subsequently developed GDM and 30 women with uneventful pregnancies. Blood samples were collected once from each participant at 6–11th weeks of gestation during the fetal viability scan and at 24–28th weeks of gestation during screening for GDM.

Results: In the first trimester, irisin levels were significantly lower in women who later developed GDM (median?=?453?ng/mL, range: 257–811?ng/mL) than in controls (median?=?721?ng/mL, range: 700–786?ng/mL). In the second trimester, the difference in irisin levels between the GDM group (median?=?749?ng/mL; range: 456–910?ng/mL) and controls (median?=?757?ng/mL; range: 703–898?ng/mL) was not statistically significant.

Conclusions: Irisin may be a useful biomarker in early pregnancy to predict the development of GDM.     

Does nuchal translucency thickness in the first trimester predict GDM onset during pregnancy?

Background and Aims.?This study was planned to evaluate whether increased nuchal translucency (NT) thickness in the first trimester of gestation can be related to onset of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) during pregnancy.

Methods.?From January 2006 to August 2008, a group of 678 singleton pregnancies who had developed GDM has been selected as a study group among a total of 3966 pregnant women who had undergone first trimester screening for aneuploidies at 11–14 weeks of gestation. A group of 420 single pregnant women with physiological pregnancy were enrolled as control group.

?Both fetal structural and karyotype's anomalies were excluded in the two groups.

NT was mesured by a Fetal Medicine Foundation certificated operator; GDM was diagnosed at 24–28 weeks of gestation following Carpenter and Coustan criteria.

?In the analyses of continuos variables, study and control group were compared by Student's t-test and Anova test.

Results.?There was no significative difference (p?=?0.585) between NT values in the study (mean?=?1.56) and control group (mean?=?1.54).

Conclusions.?NT thickness does not show a significative increase in those women who subsequently develop GDM. Therefore, NT assessment does not prove to be an useful ultrasound parameter for predicting GDM onset during pregnancy.     

The diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus: new paradigms or status quo?

The Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) Study showed significant perinatal risks at levels of maternal hyperglycemia below values that are diagnostic for diabetes. A Consensus Panel of the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) reviewed HAPO Study results and other work that examined associations of maternal glycemia with perinatal and long-term outcomes in offspring and published recommendations for diagnosis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy in 2010. Subsequently, some commentaries and debate challenged the IADPSG recommendations. In this review, we provide details regarding some points that were considered by the IADPSG Consensus Panel but not published and address the following issues: 1) what should be the frequency of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM); 2) were appropriate outcomes and odds ratios used to define diagnostic thresholds for GDM; 3) to improve perinatal outcome, should the focus be on GDM, obesity, or both; 4) should results of randomized controlled trials of treatment of mild GDM influence recommendations for diagnostic thresholds; and, 5) other issues related to diagnosis of GDM. Other groups are independently considering strategies for the diagnosis of GDM. However, after careful consideration of these issues, we affirm our support for the recommendations of the IADPSG Consensus Panel.     

妊娠期糖尿病口服降糖药的应用评价

妊娠期糖尿病患者是2型糖尿病的高危人群,两者存在发病机制的关联性和病程的续贯性。治疗原则相同,通过饮食、运动和药物治疗控制血糖。妊娠患者在选择治疗药物时,应考虑到对胎儿的影响。传统观点视胰岛素为治疗妊娠期糖尿病的唯一选择,口服降糖药可透过胎盘致胎儿低血糖、畸形等且远期影响不明确,所以其临床应用受到限制。妊娠期口服降糖药的动物实验和临床研究显示,二甲双胍、格列本脲及阿卡波糖未发现致畸作用。目前降糖药治疗妊娠期糖尿病还处于不成熟阶段,评价其治疗价值仍需大量临床资料积累和前瞻性研究。     

妊娠期糖尿病合并妊娠期肝内胆汁淤积症母儿结局探讨

目的:探讨妊娠期糖尿病合并妊娠期肝内胆汁淤积症对孕产妇和国产儿结局的影响。方法:分析17例GDM合并ICP患者和85例单纯GDM患者的临床资料。结果:两组间孕妇分娩孕周差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。两组先兆早产、早产、酮症、胎膜早破、羊水过多、胎盘早剥、剖宫产、产后出血、宫内生长受限、胎儿宫内窘迫、巨大儿、新生儿低血糖、新生儿窒息和呼吸窘迫综合征、胎儿畸形、死胎、死产发生率比较,差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论:对妊娠期糖尿病合并妊娠肝内胆汁淤积症患者早诊早治,有效控制血糖及胆汁酸,适时终止妊娠可改善围产儿结局。     

妊娠期糖尿病口服降糖药的应用评价

妊娠期糖尿病患者是2型糖尿病的高危人群,两者存在发病机制的关联性和病程的续贯性。治疗原则相同,通过饮食、运动和药物治疗控制血糖。妊娠患者在选择治疗药物时,应考虑到对胎儿的影响。传统观点视胰岛素为治疗妊娠期糖尿病的唯一选择,口服降糖药可透过胎盘致胎儿低血糖、畸形等且远期影响不明确,所以其临床应用受到限制。妊娠期口服降糖药的动物实验和临床研究显示,二甲双胍、格列本脲及阿卡波糖未发现致畸作用。目前降糖药治疗妊娠期糖尿病还处于不成熟阶段,评价其治疗价值仍需大量临床资料积累和前瞻性研究。