American Cancer Society lung cancer screening guidelines

Answer questions and earn CME/CNE Findings from the National Cancer Institute's National Lung Screening Trial established that lung cancer mortality in specific high‐risk groups can be reduced by annual screening with low‐dose computed tomography. These findings indicate that the adoption of lung cancer screening could save many lives. Based on the results of the National Lung Screening Trial, the American Cancer Society is issuing an initial guideline for lung cancer screening. This guideline recommends that clinicians with access to high‐volume, high‐quality lung cancer screening and treatment centers should initiate a discussion about screening with apparently healthy patients aged 55 years to 74 years who have at least a 30–pack‐year smoking history and who currently smoke or have quit within the past 15 years. A process of informed and shared decision‐making with a clinician related to the potential benefits, limitations, and harms associated with screening for lung cancer with low‐dose computed tomography should occur before any decision is made to initiate lung cancer screening. Smoking cessation counseling remains a high priority for clinical attention in discussions with current smokers, who should be informed of their continuing risk of lung cancer. Screening should not be viewed as an alternative to smoking cessation. CA Cancer J Clin 2013;. © 2013 American Cancer Society.     

The Cost-Effectiveness of High-Risk Lung Cancer Screening and Drivers of Program Efficiency

IntroductionLung cancer risk prediction models have the potential to make programs more affordable; however, the economic evidence is limited.MethodsParticipants in the National Lung Cancer Screening Trial (NLST) were retrospectively identified with the risk prediction tool developed from the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial. The high-risk subgroup was assessed for lung cancer incidence and demographic characteristics compared with those in the low-risk subgroup and the Pan-Canadian Early Detection of Lung Cancer Study (PanCan), which is an observational study that was high-risk–selected in Canada. A comparison of high-risk screening versus standard care was made with a decision-analytic model using data from the NLST with Canadian cost data from screening and treatment in the PanCan study. Probabilistic and deterministic sensitivity analyses were undertaken to assess uncertainty and identify drivers of program efficiency.ResultsUse of the risk prediction tool developed from the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial with a threshold set at 2% over 6 years would have reduced the number of individuals who needed to be screened in the NLST by 81%. High-risk screening participants in the NLST had more adverse demographic characteristics than their counterparts in the PanCan study. High-risk screening would cost $20,724 (in 2015 Canadian dollars) per quality-adjusted life-year gained and would be considered cost-effective at a willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000 in Canadian dollars per quality-adjusted life-year gained with a probability of 0.62. Cost-effectiveness was driven primarily by non–lung cancer outcomes. Higher noncurative drug costs or current costs for immunotherapy and targeted therapies in the United States would render lung cancer screening a cost-saving intervention.ConclusionsNon–lung cancer outcomes drive screening efficiency in diverse, tobacco-exposed populations. Use of risk selection can reduce the budget impact, and screening may even offer cost savings if noncurative treatment costs continue to rise.     

Biomarkers in Lung Cancer Screening: Achievements,Promises, and Challenges

The present review is an update of the research and development efforts regarding the use of molecular biomarkers in the lung cancer screening setting. The two main unmet clinical needs, namely, the refinement of risk to improve the selection of individuals undergoing screening and the characterization of undetermined nodules found during the computed tomography–based screening process are the object of the biomarkers described in the present review. We first propose some principles to optimize lung cancer biomarker discovery projects. Then, we summarize the discovery and developmental status of currently promising molecular candidates, such as autoantibodies, complement fragments, microRNAs, circulating tumor DNA, DNA methylation, blood protein profiling, or RNA airway or nasal signatures. We also mention other emerging biomarkers or new technologies to follow, such as exhaled breath biomarkers, metabolomics, sputum cell imaging, genetic predisposition studies, and the integration of next-generation sequencing into study of circulating DNA. We also underline the importance of integrating different molecular technologies together with imaging, radiomics, and artificial intelligence. We list a number of completed, ongoing, or planned trials to show the clinical utility of molecular biomarkers. Finally, we comment on future research challenges in the field of biomarkers in the context of lung cancer screening and propose a design of a trial to test the clinical utility of one or several candidate biomarkers.     

Potential Impact of Cessation Interventions at the Point of Lung Cancer Screening on Lung Cancer and Overall Mortality in the United States

IntroductionAnnual lung cancer screening with low-dose computed tomography is recommended for adults aged 55 to 80 years with a greater than or equal to 30 pack-year smoking history who currently smoke or quit within the past 15 years. The 50% who are current smokers should be offered cessation interventions, but information about the impact of adding cessation to screening is limited.MethodsWe used an established lung cancer simulation model to compare the effects on mortality of a hypothetical one-time cessation intervention and annual screening versus annual screening only among screen-eligible individuals born in 1950 or 1960. Model inputs were derived from national data and included smoking history, probability of quitting with and without intervention, lung cancer risk and treatment effectiveness, and competing tobacco-related mortality. We tested the sensitivity of results under different assumptions about screening use and cessation efficacy.ResultsSmoking cessation reduces lung cancer mortality and delays overall deaths versus screening only across all assumptions. For example, if screening was used by 30% of screen-eligible individuals born in 1950, adding an intervention with a 10% quit probability reduces lung cancer deaths by 14% and increases life years gained by 81% compared with screening alone. The magnitude of cessation benefits varied under screening uptake rates, cessation effectiveness, and birth cohort.ConclusionsSmoking cessation interventions have the potential to greatly enhance the impact of lung cancer screening programs. Evaluation of specific interventions, including costs and feasibility of implementation and dissemination, is needed to determine the best possible strategies and realize the full promise of lung cancer screening.     

湖南省2017—2018年肺癌低剂量螺旋CT筛查结果和依从性分析

目的 分析湖南省2017—2018年度城市癌症早诊早治项目中肺癌低剂量螺旋CT(Low-dose spiral CT,LDCT)筛查初步结果和依从性影响因素,为开展肺癌防控工作提供依据.方法 在长沙市五个城区,动员所有40～74岁常住居民填写高危风险评估问卷,评估的肺癌高危者接受肺癌LDCT临床筛查,分析肺癌高危评估和...     

Clinical Significance of Lung-RADS Category 3 Lesions in the National Lung Screening Trial

IntroductionTo determine the clinical significance of category 3 (CAT3) abnormalities and the necessity of a 6-month follow-up computed tomography (CT). We also explored features associated with increased lung cancer risk.MethodsFrom the National Lung Screening Trial database, we identified participants with CAT3 lesions at prevalence screen. Rates of lung cancer and lung cancer-specific deaths (LSDs) were compared between those who underwent first follow-up CT before 6 months (early diagnostic group) and those who underwent annual screening (annual diagnostic group). We estimated the change in LSD if the 6-month CT was eliminated. Regression analysis was performed to identify features associated with participants with CAT3 who developed lung cancer.ResultsA total of 1763 CAT3s were identified (6.6% of all participants who had low-dose CT), with 108 lung cancers (6.1%) and 41 LSDs (2.3%) in a 7-year period. Rates of lung cancer (7.5% versus 3.1%) and LSD (4.0% versus 1.0%) were higher in the early diagnostic group than in the annual diagnostic group. We estimated an increase in LSD of 0.6% of all participants with CAT3 (24.4% of all LSDs) if the 6-month CT was not performed. Multivariate regression analysis found that increased age, emphysema, and a part-solid nodule greater than 5 mm were associated with participants with CAT3 who developed lung cancer.ConclusionsCAT3 lesions are uncommon, and eliminating the 6-month CT would potentially increase LSD by 0.6% of all patients with CAT3. Age, emphysema, and part-solid nodule greater than 5 mm may be useful in risk prediction models to determine which participants with CAT3 are more likely to develop lung cancer and suggest which patients may need more intense follow-up.     

肺癌影像学筛查方法的价值比较

影像学是肺癌筛查的主要手段,本文综述并比较了常用影像学方法在肺癌筛查中的价值。每种方法各有优缺点,对高危人群采取定期的影像学随访,可以发现更多的早期肺癌,给予及时的治疗。但究竟能否有效降低肺癌的死亡率尚有待于进一步研究。     

基于社区的早期肺癌低剂量螺旋CT扫描筛查上海实践初探

背景与目的：作为中国最常见的恶性肿瘤,肺癌的发病率及死亡率长期保持在较高水平。而有效改善肺癌预后,关键在于早期诊断和规范治疗。本研究密切结合上海社区医疗服务发展现状,整合各级医疗机构优势资源,探索基于上海社区的早期肺癌低剂量螺旋CT筛查路径模式。方法：2013年8月—2014年8月,针对上海市闵行区部分试点社区,以低剂量螺旋CT作为肺癌初步筛查手段,在高危人群中开展肺癌早期诊断,并结合以微创手术治疗为主的多学科综合治疗模式,构建涵盖肺癌预防、诊断、治疗、康复及随访等医疗服务措施的综合治疗立体网络。结果：筛查总人数为11332人(男性7144人,女性4188人)。其中,明确诊断恶性肿瘤29例,包括原发性肺癌27例、转移性肺癌1例和乳腺癌1例;筛查原发性肺癌发病率为238.26×10-5;0~Ⅰ期肺癌共22例,在原发性肺癌中占81.48%。结论：基于上海社区的早期肺癌低剂量螺旋CT筛查路径模式提高肺癌早期诊断率,具有可行性及有效性,可在有条件的社区及医疗卫生机构推广。     

2014-2016年合肥市城市居民肺癌筛查率及筛查结果分析

目的 分析2014—2016年合肥市城市居民肺癌筛查率及筛查结果,评价肺癌筛查效果。方法 采取整群抽样的方法,对合肥市7个区40~69岁常住居民进行癌症危险因素问卷调查和肺癌高危因素评估,对评估出的肺癌高危人群进行胸部低剂量螺旋CT检查。分析肺癌高危人群筛查率和检出率。采用主动随访加被动随访统计确诊肺癌数,计算肺癌发病密度。结果 2014—2016年共完成58 105人的问卷调查和肺癌高危风险评估,评估出肺癌高危12 449人,肺癌高危率为21.43%。共5 646人参加低剂量螺旋CT筛查(筛查参与率为45.35%),检出肺部结节1 540人(结节检出率为27.28%),阳性结节354人(阳性结节检出率为6.27%),疑似肺癌54人(疑似肺癌检出率为0.96%)。评估为肺癌高危者的肺癌发病密度为131.01/10万人年;CT筛查者中检出阳性结节的肺癌发病密度为1 255.36/10万人年;CT筛查者中检出阴性结节的肺癌发病密度为103.12/10万人年。结论 低剂量螺旋CT可有效发现肺内结节及相关病变,需进一步完善筛查机制,提高肺癌高危人群筛查率,提高筛查效果及防控水平。     

全球肺癌的流行及预防进展

世界卫生组织国际癌症研究所新近发布了《世界癌症报告——癌症预防研究》，根据该报告，对肺癌的全球和中国的流行和生存率、基因易感性、致癌物、空气污染、既往肺部疾病等主要危险因素，以及筛查等预防相关研究进展，并结合中国状况，进行概略介绍。     

Moving Beyond the National Lung Screening Trial: Discussing Strategies for Implementation of Lung Cancer Screening Programs

The National Lung Screening Trial (NLST) has sparked new interest in the adoption of lung cancer screening using low‐dose computed tomography (LDCT). If adopted at a national level, LDCT screening may prevent approximately 18,000 lung cancer deaths per year, potentially constituting a high‐value public health intervention. Before incorporating LDCT screening into practice, health care institutions need to consider the risks associated with LDCT screening and the impact of LDCT screening on health care costs, as well as other remaining areas of uncertainty, including the unknown cost‐effectiveness of LDCT screening. This article will review the benefits and risks of LDCT screening in light of the results of the NLST and other randomized trials, it will discuss the additional health care costs associated with LDCT screening from the perspective of health care payers, and it will examine the published cost‐effectiveness analyses of LDCT screening. A subsequent discussion highlights guideline recommendations for implementation strategies, the goals of which are to ensure that those eligible for LDCT screening derive the benefits while minimizing the risks of screening and avoiding an unnecessary escalation in screening‐related costs. The article concludes by endorsing the use of LDCT screening in institutions capable of responsible implementation of screening in both medical and economic terms. The key elements of responsible implementation include the development of standardized screening practices, careful selection of screening candidates, and the creation of prospective registries that will mitigate current areas of uncertainty regarding LDCT screening.     

Early Results of Lung Cancer Screening and Radiation Dose Assessment by Low-dose CT at a Community Hospital

Background

The National Lung Screening Trial showed a reduction in overall and cancer-specific mortality for patients screened with low-dose computed tomography (LDCT) versus chest radiograph. Some question whether this can be achieved in community healthcare settings. Our aim was to analyze lung cancer screening outcomes and administered radiation dose using LDCT scans at a community hospital.

Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975‐2006, featuring colorectal cancer trends and impact of interventions (risk factors,screening, and treatment) to reduce future rates

BACKGROUND.

The American Cancer Society, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Cancer Institute (NCI), and the North American Association of Central Cancer Registries (NAACCR) collaborate annually to provide updated information regarding cancer occurrence and trends in the United States. This year's report includes trends in colorectal cancer (CRC) incidence and death rates and highlights the use of microsimulation modeling as a tool for interpreting past trends and projecting future trends to assist in cancer control planning and policy decisions.

METHODS.

Information regarding invasive cancers was obtained from the NCI, CDC, and NAACCR; and information on deaths was obtained from the CDC's National Center for Health Statistics. Annual percentage changes in the age‐standardized incidence and death rates (based on the year 2000 US population standard) for all cancers combined and for the top 15 cancers were estimated by joinpoint analysis of long‐term trends (1975‐2006) and for short‐term fixed‐interval trends (1997‐2006). All statistical tests were 2‐sided.

RESULTS.

Both incidence and death rates from all cancers combined significantly declined (P < .05) in the most recent time period for men and women overall and for most racial and ethnic populations. These decreases were driven largely by declines in both incidence and death rates for the 3 most common cancers in men (ie, lung and prostate cancers and CRC) and for 2 of the 3 leading cancers in women (ie, breast cancer and CRC). The long‐term trends for lung cancer mortality in women had smaller and smaller increases until 2003, when there was a change to a nonsignificant decline. Microsimulation modeling demonstrates that declines in CRC death rates are consistent with a relatively large contribution from screening and with a smaller but demonstrable impact of risk factor reductions and improved treatments. These declines are projected to continue if risk factor modification, screening, and treatment remain at current rates, but they could be accelerated further with favorable trends in risk factors and higher utilization of screening and optimal treatment.

CONCLUSIONS.

Although the decrease in overall cancer incidence and death rates is encouraging, rising incidence and mortality for some cancers are of concern. Cancer 2010. © 2009 American Cancer Society.     

Screening for Lung Cancer in Individuals Who Never Smoked: An International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer Early Detection and Screening Committee Report

Screening with low-dose computed tomography of high-risk individuals with a smoking history reduces lung cancer mortality. Current screening guidelines and eligibility criteria can miss more than 50% of lung cancers, and in some geographic areas, such as East Asia, a large proportion of the missed lung cancers are in never-smokers. Although randomized trials revealed the benefits of screening for people who smoke, these trials generally excluded never-smokers. Thus, the feasibility and effectiveness of lung cancer screening of individuals who never smoked are uncertain. Several known and suspected risk factors for lung cancers in never-smokers such as exposure to secondhand smoke, occupational carcinogens, radon, air pollution, and pulmonary diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and interstitial lung diseases, and intrinsic factors, such as age, are well noted. In this regard, knowledge of risk factors may make possible quantification and prediction of lung cancer risk in never smokers. It is worth considering if and how never smokers could be included in population-based screening programs. As the implementation of these programs is challenging in many countries owing to multiple factors and the epidemiologic differences by global regions, these issues will need to be evaluated in each country taking into account various factors, including accuracy of risk assessment and cost-effectiveness of screening in never smokers. This report aims to outline current knowledge on risk factors for lung cancer in never smokers to propose research strategies for this topic and initiate a broader discussion on lung cancer screening of never smokers. Similar considerations can be made in current and ex-smokers, which do not fulfill the current screening inclusion criteria, but otherwise are at increased risk. Although screening of never smokers may in the future be effectively conducted, current evidence to support widespread implementation of this practice is lacking.     

Cancer care for individuals with schizophrenia

Individuals with schizophrenia are a vulnerable population that has been relatively neglected in health disparities research. Despite having an equivalent risk of developing most cancers, patients with schizophrenia are more likely to die of cancer than the general population. Cancer care disparities are likely the result of patient‐, provider‐, and systems‐level factors and influenced by the pervasive stigma of mental illness. Individuals with schizophrenia have higher rates of health behaviors linked with cancer mortality including cigarette smoking. They also have significant medical comorbidity, are less likely to have up‐to‐date cancer screening, and may present at more advanced stages of illness. Patients with schizophrenia may be less likely to receive chemotherapy or radiotherapy, have more postoperative complications, and have less access to palliative care. However, opportunities exist for the interdisciplinary team, including medical, surgical, and radiation oncologists; psychiatrists; and primary care physicians, to intervene throughout the continuum of cancer care to promote survival and quality of life. This review summarizes data on overall and cancer‐specific mortality for individuals with schizophrenia and reviews specific disparities across the cancer care continuum of screening, diagnosis, treatment, and end‐of‐life care. Using a case, the authors illustrate clinical challenges for this population including communication, informed consent, and risk of suicide, and provide suggestions for care. Finally, recommendations for research to address the disparities in cancer care for individuals with schizophrenia are discussed. Despite significant challenges, with collaboration between oncology and mental health teams, individuals with schizophrenia can receive high‐quality cancer care. Cancer 2014;120:323–334 . © 2013 American Cancer Society.     

Lung Screening Benefits and Challenges: A Review of The Data and Outline for Implementation

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, accounting for almost a fifth of all cancer-related deaths. Annual computed tomographic lung cancer screening (CTLS) detects lung cancer at earlier stages and reduces lung cancer-related mortality among high-risk individuals. Many medical organizations, including the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, recommend annual CTLS in high-risk populations. However, fewer than 5% of individuals worldwide at high risk for lung cancer have undergone screening. In large part, this is owing to delayed implementation of CTLS in many countries throughout the world. Factors contributing to low uptake in countries with longstanding CTLS endorsement, such as the United States, include lack of patient and clinician awareness of current recommendations in favor of CTLS and clinician concerns about CTLS-related radiation exposure, false-positive results, overdiagnosis, and cost. This review of the literature serves to address these concerns by evaluating the potential risks and benefits of CTLS. Review of key components of a lung screening program, along with an updated shared decision aid, provides guidance for program development and optimization. Review of studies evaluating the population considered “high-risk” is included as this may affect future guidelines within the United States and other countries considering lung screening implementation.     

Potential effect of the risk of ovarian cancer algorithm (ROCA) on the mortality outcome of the Prostate,Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian (PLCO) trial

Recently, the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian (PLCO) Trial reported no mortality benefit for annual screening with CA‐125 and transvaginal ultrasound (TVU). Currently ongoing is the UK Collaborative Trial of Ovarian Cancer Screening (UKCTOCS), which utilizes the risk of ovarian cancer algorithm (ROCA), a statistical tool that considers current and past CA125 values to determine ovarian cancer risk. In contrast, PLCO used a single cutoff for CA125, based on current levels alone. We investigated whether having had used ROCA in PLCO could have, under optimal assumptions, resulted in a significant mortality benefit by applying ROCA to PLCO CA125 screening values. A best‐case scenario assumed that all cancers showing a positive screen result earlier with ROCA than under the PLCO protocol would have avoided mortality; under a stage‐shift scenario, such women were assigned survival equivalent to Stage I/II screen‐detected cases. Updated PLCO data show 132 intervention arm ovarian cancer deaths versus 119 in usual care (relative risk, RR = 1.11). Forty‐three ovarian cancer cases, 25 fatal, would have been detected earlier with ROCA, with a median (minimum) advance time for fatal cases of 344 (147) days. Best‐case and stage‐shift scenarios gave 25 and 19 deaths prevented with ROCA, for RRs of 0.90 (95% CI: 0.69–1.17) and 0.95 (95% CI: 0.74–1.23), respectively. Having utilized ROCA in PLCO would not have led to a significant mortality benefit of screening. However, ROCA could still show a significant effect in other screening trials, including UKCTOCS.     

The oncologic burden of hepatitis C virus infection: A clinical perspective

Answer questions and earn CME/CNE Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection affects millions of people worldwide and is associated with cancer. Direct‐acting antivirals (DAAs) have changed HCV treatment paradigms, but little is known about the management of HCV infection in patients with cancer. The substantial burden of HCV infection and the inconclusive evidence regarding its detection and management in patients with cancer prompted the authors to review the literature and formulate recommendations. Patients for whom HCV screening is recommended included all patients with hematologic malignancies, hematopoietic cell transplantation candidates, and patients with liver cancer. There is a lack of consensus‐based recommendations for the identification of HCV‐infected patients with other types of cancer, but physicians may at least consider screening patients who belong to groups at heightened risk of HCV infection, including those born during 1945 through 1965 and those at high risk for infection. Patients with evidence of HCV infection should be assessed by an expert to evaluate liver disease severity, comorbidities associated with HCV infection, and treatment opportunities. DAA therapy should be tailored on the basis of patient prognosis, type of cancer, cancer treatment plan, and hepatic and virologic parameters. HCV‐infected patients with cancer who have cirrhosis (or even advanced fibrosis) and those at risk for liver disease progression, especially patients with HCV‐associated comorbidities, should have ongoing follow‐up, regardless of whether there is a sustained virologic response, to ensure timely detection and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. HCV infection and its treatment should not be considered contraindications to cancer treatment and should not delay the initiation of an urgent cancer therapy. CA Cancer J Clin 2017. © 2017 American Cancer Society. CA Cancer J Clin 2017;67:411–431. © 2017 American Cancer Society.     

Screening and early detection efforts in lung cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer‐related death in the United States. Since publication of results from the National Lung Screening Trial, several professional organizations, including the US Preventive Services Task Force, have published guidelines recommending low‐dose computed tomography for screening in asymptomatic, high‐risk individuals. The benefits of screening include detection of cancer at an early stage when a definitive cure is possible, but the risks include overdiagnosis, false‐positive results, psychological distress, and radiation exposure. The current review covers the scope of low‐dose computed tomography screening, potential risks, costs, and future directions in the efforts for early detection of lung cancer. Cancer 2015;121:1347–1356. © 2015 American Cancer Society.     

低剂量螺旋CT肺癌筛查的研究现状与进展

肺癌是最常见的恶性肿瘤之一,严重影响人民身心健康。在全世界大多数国家,其发病率和死亡率均居首位,因此对肺癌高危人群进行早期筛查的必要性与日俱增。随着低剂量螺旋CT(Low-dose computed tomography,LDCT)在各个国家的推广和应用,肺癌的死亡率明显降低,但同时也带来许多问题,如假阳性过高、过度诊断会造成患者经济和心理的双重负担;女性被动吸烟的人数越来越多,但未被纳入肺癌高危人群的筛查;肺癌筛查对高危人群的定义与标准、阳性结节的定义与标准均尚无统一指南发布等。这些问题日益突出,是现今大多数研究面临的主要困难与挑战。本文就LDCT肺癌筛查的研究现状和进展做一综述。