石斛篓象成虫对不同来源气味的行为反应

【目的】研究不同来源气味对石斛篓象Nassophasis sp.成虫嗅觉选择行为的影响,对于发展新型石斛篓象成虫防治技术具有重要意义。【方法】应用陷阱式嗅觉测定仪测试了石斛篓象成虫对同种个体气味、蛹壳气味、成虫粪便、球花石斛Dendrobium thyrsiflorum受害植株气味的嗅觉反应。【结果】雌成虫气味对雄成虫有引诱作用,对雌成虫没有引诱作用;雄虫气味对雌、雄成虫均无引诱效果。雌、雄蛹壳气味对雌、雄成虫均有显著引诱效果。两性成虫聚集时产生的粪便对雌、雄成虫均有显著引诱作用,雌虫或者雄虫单独放置时产生的粪便对雌、雄成虫均无引诱效果。被雌虫为害的球花石斛植株茎干释放的气味仅对雌虫有引诱作用, 而受雄虫为害后的茎干产生的气味仅对雄成虫有引诱作用。【结论】本研究为进一步分离、 鉴定对该虫有引诱作用的活性物质奠定了基础。     

小菜蛾成虫对健康和机械损伤薄荷的嗅觉反应

【目的】比较健康和机械损伤的薄荷Mentha spicata对小菜蛾Plutella xylostella成虫嗅觉反应的影响,为筛选小菜蛾植物源驱避剂提供科学依据。【方法】利用触角电位(EAG)仪和Y型嗅觉仪分别测定小菜蛾雌、雄成虫对健康和机械损伤薄荷的触角电位和嗅觉行为反应,通过田间试验测定雌蛾产卵选择的忌避反应。【结果】健康薄荷和机械损伤薄荷均能引起小菜蛾雌、雄成虫触角电位反应,但损伤薄荷引起的触角电位反应值显著高于健康薄荷(P0.05);室内行为选择试验结果显示,损伤薄荷对小菜蛾雄性成虫有显著驱避作用(P0.05),驱避指数为53.33%,对雌性成虫有极显著驱避作用(P0.01),驱避指数达到80%;田间产卵选择试验发现,损伤薄荷对小菜蛾雌成虫产卵有极显著驱避作用(P0.01),产卵忌避指数达到71.32%。但是健康薄荷对小菜蛾雌、雄成虫的行为选择和雌性成虫的产卵选择均无显著驱避作用(P0.05)。【结论】机械损伤薄荷对小菜蛾成虫有较强的驱避效果,可以对其进行驱避活性挥发物质的筛选或作为驱避源来防治小菜蛾的危害。     

蜜蜂对复合气味中特征因素的选择性记忆巩固的研究

目的 蜜蜂天生具有丰富的嗅觉辨识能力,觅食、交配、导航以及社交活动均依赖其嗅觉系统,是研究嗅觉感知和学习记忆的行为及神经机制的理想模型。蜜蜂既能够将某个复合气味作为一个整体也可以将复合气味的各组成成分进行辨别和区分,但是在特征依赖的联合记忆中依据何种原则进行加工并存储到长期记忆还不清楚。方法 本文利用特征阳性（feature positive：AB+,B-）和特征阴性（feature negative：AB-,B+）的奖赏性嗅觉条件化,训练蜜蜂对复合气味和成分气味的辨别,并检测蜜蜂对复合气味（AB）、成分气味（B）以及特征气味（A）的中长时记忆（3 h）和长时记忆（24 h）。结果 在特征阳性的奖赏性嗅觉条件化中,蜜蜂对训练过的气味可以形成稳定的中长时和长时记忆,并且对复合气味中的特征气味的记忆与复合气味的记忆呈现高度相似。但在特征阴性的奖赏性嗅觉条件化中,蜜蜂虽能够在3 h和24 h对训练过的两种气味具有显著的伸喙反应差异,且对特征阴性的气味无显著反应,但对复合气味的反应随时间的推移而增加。结论 实验结果表明,蜜蜂选择性地将与奖赏信息联合出现的气味巩固到长时记忆中,但并未依据特征成分加工储存到长时记忆中。奖赏信息预示着食物源,与生存息息相关,表明对环境信息进行选择性的记忆巩固加工并储存可能是低等动物高效地编码生存相关信息的重要策略。     

意大利蜜蜂对两种油菜花朵气味的偏爱性

【目的】明确意大利蜜蜂Apis mellifera ligustica（简称“意蜂”）对两种油菜（甘蓝型胜利油菜 Brassica napus cv. Shengli和芥菜型马尾油菜 B. juncea cv. Mawei）的气味偏爱性及选择行为特征。【方法】本研究开展大田访花偏爱性试验、室外群体气味偏爱性试验以及室内“Y”型嗅觉仪行为反应和学习记忆试验,测定意蜂蜂群及青年采集蜂对甘蓝型胜利油菜和芥菜型马尾油菜两种油菜花朵的选择次数,并通过采集蜂训练时及训练后的喙伸反应率分析两种油菜花朵气味对采集蜂学习记忆能力的影响,最终评估意蜂蜂群及个体对这两种油茶花朵气味的选择性。【结果】大田试验12:00-13:00时间段,访问胜利油菜的意蜂数量显著高于访问马尾油菜的数量(P<0.05）。群体气味偏爱性试验14:00-15:00时间段意蜂访问胜利油菜的数量显著高于访问马尾油菜的数量（P<0.05）。行为反应试验结果显示意蜂选择胜利油菜的次数（3.86±2.83）显著高于访问马尾油菜的次数（2.28±1.87）（P<0.05）。在学习记忆试验中,随着训练次数的增加,意蜂对两种油菜花朵气味的喙伸反应率逐渐升高,相同的训练次数,意蜂对两种油菜气味的学习能力差异不显著（P>0.05）;训练结束后,随着时间的增加,意蜂对胜利油菜及马尾油菜的气味记忆逐渐下降,在24 h对胜利油菜的气味记忆明显高于对马尾油菜的气味记忆（P<0.05）。【结论】本研究证明意蜂较偏爱胜利油菜的花朵气味,花朵气味是影响其采集偏爱的重要因素,气味响应性试验可定量分析蜜蜂对花朵气味的嗅觉敏感性。     

榴莲果肉挥发物对橘小实蝇雄虫的引诱作用

【目的】实蝇类雄成虫对某些含有甲基丁香酚或覆盆子酮等特殊化合物的花类具有强烈的趋性。具有强烈气味的水果挥发物对果实蝇属昆虫的引诱作用尚未有研究。【方法】在杨桃园研究榴莲、菠萝蜜、菠萝及番荔枝4种新鲜水果气味对橘小实蝇的引诱作用,利用顶空固相微萃取和气质联用技术(GC-MS)提取并分析榴莲果肉挥发物成分。【结果】结果显示,榴莲果肉挥发物对橘小实蝇雄虫的引诱效果最显著;榴莲果肉挥发物共得到22个峰,鉴别到20种化合物。绝大部分为酯类物质(>90%),少数为醇类(0.50%)、醛类(0.45%)和含硫化合物(4.23%);诱捕试验显示,2-甲基丁酸乙酯对橘小实蝇雄虫的引诱数量显著高于2-甲基丁酸甲酯、丙酸丙酯、二甲基硫醚、辛酸乙酯、己酸甲酯以及榴莲鲜果肉。【结论】本试验结果将为下一步研发高效桔小实蝇引诱剂提供依据。     

近红外窄带光照下不同水果背景中桔小实蝇的图像分割

【目的】为了增强水果背景中桔小实蝇Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel（双翅目实蝇科）的识别效果,研究了该种昆虫与不同水果之间的反射光谱差异。【方法】采用紫外 可见光 近红外分光光度计测量了桔小实蝇与16种水果在400~2 500 nm波段的反射光谱。在中心波长为565 nm和827 nm的窄谱带光源及日光3种光源分别照射下,分别拍摄各种水果背景中的桔小实蝇照片,并用大津Otsu算法对照片进行二值化处理。【结果】发现桔小实蝇的反射率随波长增加而缓慢地增大,最大反射率小于40%。而16种水果的最强反射峰全部或部分落在在777～896 nm。不同水果平均最大反射率为41.10%～97.89%,与桔小实蝇在此波段的低反射率（约30%）形成强烈的反差。在827 nm中心波长窄带光源照射下拍摄的照片中,发现桔小实蝇为黑色,而背景水果呈现大面积的白色,形成高反差,桔小实蝇很容易被辨识。相反,在日光和565 nm中心波长窄带光源照射的照片中,水果背景存在较多的黑色斑块,容易与桔小实蝇的黑区混淆;或者该虫形成白斑,从而无法识别。【结论】选用近红外波段的窄带光源照射能明显提高桔小实蝇与水果图像的对比度,增强桔小实蝇的分割效果。     

金斑蝶觅食求偶过程中的视觉嗅觉利用

【目的】阐明金斑蝶Danaus chrysippus觅食求偶时视觉嗅觉信息利用机制。【方法】通过行为学观察,测试金斑蝶成虫对7种不同颜色的假花和假花喷施10%蜂蜜水后的觅食响应;通过自然种群求偶和塑封模型访问试验,验证金斑蝶对颜色和气味行为响应。【结果】在无气味的7种颜色的假花条件下,金斑蝶成虫访花总次数为138次,对长波长红色(620～750 nm)显示出明显的颜色趋性(占总访花次数的 52.17%),访问蓝色(占总访花次数的15.22%)和橙色(占总访花次数的11.59%)次之,其他4种颜色假花较少访问;在假花上喷洒10%蜂蜜水后,金斑蝶成虫访花总次数增加3.05倍,雌雄蝶访花次数分别增加3.31和2.86倍;去花冠无气味的花枝几乎没有蝴蝶访问,然而在去花冠无气味的假花花枝上喷洒10%蜂蜜水后,金斑蝶成虫访花总次数增加146次,对单一颜色的访问次数与对单一气味的访问次数相比无显著差异,金斑蝶成虫对气味加颜色的访问总次数较对单一气味的访问总次数增加2.88倍,雌雄蝶访花次数分别增加2.95和2.83倍;金斑蝶雄蝶对颜色和气味的敏感性高于雌蝶。在求偶过程中,金斑蝶对自然种群与蝶翅模型都有雄追雄、雄追雌、雌追雌和雌追雄4种模式,但金斑蝶对无气味蝶翅模型的追逐次数显著低于对自然种群的追逐次数。在自然光下,雌雄蝶翅颜色和图案相近,除了雄蝶后翅腹面多一白色性标斑点外,其他无显著区别;在紫外光下,蝶翅模型的颜色和图案比自然蝶翅更为明显,可能有助于异性识别。【结论】金斑蝶成虫在觅食和求偶过程中,视觉嗅觉同等重要。颜色较稳定、醒目、容易被发现;气味不稳定、易挥发、受环境干扰较大。在觅食中,金斑蝶利用视觉先进行初步定位,通过嗅觉和味觉确认食物资源;在求偶中,金斑蝶成虫通过视觉初步区分异性,然后依靠嗅觉进行精确识别。     

异色瓢虫气味结合蛋白基因HaxyOBP1和HaxyOBP6的克隆及表达谱分析

【目的】本研究旨在探索异色瓢虫Harmonia axyridis气味结合蛋白的结构和分布,更好地了解气味结合蛋白在异色瓢虫嗅觉系统中的作用。【方法】利用生物信息学方法克隆异色瓢虫2个气味结合蛋白基因序列并对其蛋白结构进行分析;通过实时荧光定量PCR分析克隆获得的这2个基因在异色瓢虫各个发育阶段和成虫不同组织中的表达水平。【结果】本研究成功克隆得到异色瓢虫两个气味结合蛋白基因HaxyOBP1和HaxyOBP6(GenBank登录号分别为MG757923和MG757927)。HaxyOBP1开放阅读框全长447 bp,编码148个氨基酸,具有6个保守的半胱氨酸,表明HaxyOBP1属于Classic OBPs。HaxyOBP1在异色瓢虫各发育阶段均有表达,在雄性成虫中表达量最高;组织表达谱分析表明HaxyOBP1在雄虫头部表达量最高。HaxyOBP6开放阅读框全长414 bp,编码137个氨基酸,具有4个保守的半胱氨酸,表明HaxyOBP6属于Minus-C OBPs。HaxyOBP6在成虫期的表达量明显高于幼虫阶段,并且在雄成虫中的表达量显著高于雌成虫;组织表达谱分析表明HaxyOBP6在雄成虫头部和雌成虫翅中表达量最高。【结论】本研究克隆得到异色瓢虫两个气味结合蛋白基因,表达谱分析表明HaxyOBP1和HaxyOBP6分别在异色瓢虫成虫头和翅中具有较高的表达水平,说明气味结合蛋白基因可能在异色瓢虫非嗅觉组织中同样具有重要作用。本研究结果为深入研究异色瓢虫气味结合蛋白结构和功能奠定了基础。     

中华按蚊气味结合蛋白基因AsinOBP1的克隆和表达分析

【目的】蚊虫的行为在很大程度上依赖于嗅觉系统, 例如寻找宿主和产卵场所等。中华按蚊Anopheles sinensis是我国最重要的传疟媒介之一, 但有关中华按蚊嗅觉信号传递过程的研究甚少。本研究旨在克隆和表达分析中华按蚊的气味结合蛋白（odorant binding proteins, OBPs）基因, 为进一步研究中华按蚊嗅觉传递的分子机制奠定基础。【方法】通过分析中华按蚊的转录组数据克隆气味结合蛋白基因, 采用RT-PCR和实时定量PCR技术分析该基因在成虫不同组织和在吸血前后的表达模式。【结果】克隆到一个气味结合蛋白基因, 命名为AsinOBP1 (GenBank登录号为KJ958382)。AsinOBP1基因开放阅读框长435 bp, 编码144个氨基酸, 具有典型的6个半胱氨酸位点。RT-PCR组织表达谱分析发现, AsinOBP1在检测的所有成虫触角、下颚须、喙和头部组织中都有表达, 而在足和去掉头部以外的躯体组织中不表达。定量分析发现AsinOBP1在雌蚊触角中的表达水平最高, 吸食血液后, AsinOBP1的表达水平显著下降; 仅用小鼠气味处理后, AsinOBP1的表达水平也显著下降。【结论】研究结果说明AsinOBP1可能是嗅觉组织特异性表达的基因, 与雌蚊寻找宿主等行为有关, 其功能还需深入研究。     

普通大蓟马聚集信息素的分离和鉴定

【目的】普通大蓟马Megalurothrips usitatus是我国华南地区重要的豆科害虫,给我国豇豆种植产业带来巨大损失。开发利用基于聚集信息素的引诱剂是普通大蓟马的绿色防控措施之一,对于普通大蓟马生物防治具有重要意义。【方法】采用Y型嗅觉仪测定普通大蓟马雌雄成虫对其雌虫和雄虫气味源的嗅觉反应;用顶空固相微萃取法(head space solid-phase microextraction, HS-SPME)和溶液浸提法提取普通大蓟马雌雄成虫挥发物;应用气质联用仪(gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, GC-MS)对收集的气体挥发物和正己烷提取物进行活性成分分离鉴定;应用Y型嗅觉仪测定人工合成聚集信息素组分对雌雄成虫的引诱效果。【结果】行为学试验结果表明,普通大蓟马雄成虫气味源对其雌雄成虫均具有显著的引诱作用,而雌成虫气味源则没有。顶空固相微萃取法和溶液浸提法均可提取雄成虫挥发物主要组分,但顶空固相微萃取法获得的TIC图基线平稳,杂峰少,提取效果优于溶剂浸提法。GC-MS分析结果表明,普通大蓟马雄成虫挥发物中主要含有 1种化合物,为反式,反式-金合欢醇乙酸酯［(E,E)-farnesyl acetate］,该化合物在雌成虫挥发物中不存在。室内行为学实验结果表明,特定剂量的人工合成的(E,E)-farnesyl acetate对普通大蓟马雌雄成虫均具有显著的引诱作用。【结论】本研究证明了普通大蓟马雄成虫可以释放聚集信息素,并鉴定了其主要组分(E,E)-farnesyl acetate,为应用聚集信息素开展普通大蓟马的监测和诱杀提供了基础。     

Appetitive and aversive learning in Spodoptera littoralis larvae

Adult Lepidoptera are capable of associative learning. This helps them to forage flowers or to find suitable oviposition sites. Larval learning has never been seriously considered because they have limited foraging capabilities and usually depend on adults as concerns their food choices. We tested if Spodoptera littoralis larvae can learn to associate an odor with a tastant using a new classical conditioning paradigm. Groups of larvae were exposed to an unconditioned stimulus (US: fructose or quinine mixed with agar) paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS: hexanol, geraniol or pentyl acetate) in a petri dish. Their reaction to CS was subsequently tested in a petri dish at different time intervals after conditioning. Trained larvae showed a significant preference or avoidance to CS when paired with US depending on the reinforcer used. The training was more efficient when larvae were given a choice between an area where CS-US was paired and an area with no CS (or another odor). In these conditions, the memory formed could be recalled at least 24 h after pairing with an aversive stimulus and only 5 min after pairing with an appetitive stimulus. This learning was specific to CS because trained larvae were able to discriminate CS from another odor that was present during the training but unrewarded. These results suggest that Lepidoptera larvae exhibit more behavioral plasticity than previously appreciated.     

Genotypic Influence on Aversive Conditioning in Honeybees,Using a Novel Thermal Reinforcement Procedure

In Pavlovian conditioning, animals learn to associate initially neutral stimuli with positive or negative outcomes, leading to appetitive and aversive learning respectively. The honeybee (Apis mellifera) is a prominent invertebrate model for studying both versions of olfactory learning and for unraveling the influence of genotype. As a queen bee mates with about 15 males, her worker offspring belong to as many, genetically-different patrilines. While the genetic dependency of appetitive learning is well established in bees, it is not the case for aversive learning, as a robust protocol was only developed recently. In the original conditioning of the sting extension response (SER), bees learn to associate an odor (conditioned stimulus - CS) with an electric shock (unconditioned stimulus - US). This US is however not a natural stimulus for bees, which may represent a potential caveat for dissecting the genetics underlying aversive learning. We thus first tested heat as a potential new US for SER conditioning. We show that thermal stimulation of several sensory structures on the bee’s body triggers the SER, in a temperature-dependent manner. Moreover, heat applied to the antennae, mouthparts or legs is an efficient US for SER conditioning. Then, using microsatellite analysis, we analyzed heat sensitivity and aversive learning performances in ten worker patrilines issued from a naturally inseminated queen. We demonstrate a strong influence of genotype on aversive learning, possibly indicating the existence of a genetic determinism of this capacity. Such determinism could be instrumental for efficient task partitioning within the hive.     

Classical Olfactory Conditioning in the Oriental Fruit Fly,Bactrocera dorsalis

The oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis, is a serious pest of fruits and vegetables. Methyl eugenol (ME), a male attractant, is used to against this fly by mass trapping. Control effect may be influenced by learning, which could modify the olfactory response of the fly to this attractant. To collect the behavioral evidence, studies on the capability of this fly for olfactory learning are necessary. We investigated olfactory learning in male flies with a classical olfactory conditioning procedure using restrained individuals under laboratory conditions. The acquisition of the proboscis extension reflex was used as the criterion for conditioning. A high conditioned response level was found in oriental fruit flies when an odor was presented in paired association with a sucrose reward but not when the odor and sucrose were presented unpaired. We also found that the conditioning performance was influenced by the odor concentration, intertrial interval, and starvation time. A slight sensitization elicited by imbibing sucrose was observed. These results indicate that oriental fruit flies have a high capacity to form an olfactory memory as a result of classical conditioning.     

Olfactory conditioning of proboscis activity in Drosophila melanogaster

Olfactory learning and memory processes in Drosophila have been well investigated with aversive conditioning, but appetitive conditioning has rarely been documented. Here, we report for the first time individual olfactory conditioning of proboscis activity in restrained Drosophila melanogaster. The protocol was adapted from those developed for proboscis extension conditioning in the honeybee Apis mellifera. After establishing a scale of small proboscis movements necessary to characterize responses to olfactory stimulation, we applied Pavlovian conditioning, with five trials consisting of paired presentation of a banana odour and a sucrose reward. Drosophila showed conditioned proboscis activity to the odour, with a twofold increase of percentage of responses after the first trial. No change occurred in flies experiencing unpaired presentations of the stimuli, confirming an associative basis for this form of olfactory learning. The adenylyl cyclase mutant rutabaga did not exhibit learning in this paradigm. This protocol generated at least a short-term memory of 15 min, but no significant associative memory was detected at 1 h. We also showed that learning performance was dependent on food motivation, by comparing flies subjected to different starvation regimes.     

Light-induced activation of distinct modulatory neurons triggers appetitive or aversive learning in Drosophila larvae

During classical conditioning, a positive or negative value is assigned to a previously neutral stimulus, thereby changing its significance for behavior. If an odor is associated with a negative stimulus, it can become repulsive. Conversely, an odor associated with a reward can become attractive. By using Drosophila larvae as a model system with minimal brain complexity, we address the question of which neurons attribute these values to odor stimuli. In insects, dopaminergic neurons are required for aversive learning, whereas octopaminergic neurons are necessary and sufficient for appetitive learning. However, it remains unclear whether two independent neuronal populations are sufficient to mediate such antagonistic values. We report the use of transgenically expressed channelrhodopsin-2, a light-activated cation channel, as a tool for optophysiological stimulation of genetically defined neuronal populations in Drosophila larvae. We demonstrate that distinct neuronal populations can be activated simply by illuminating the animals with blue light. Light-induced activation of dopaminergic neurons paired with an odor stimulus induces aversive memory formation, whereas activation of octopaminergic/tyraminergic neurons induces appetitive memory formation. These findings demonstrate that antagonistic modulatory subsystems are sufficient to substitute for aversive and appetitive reinforcement during classical conditioning.     

Hydroxyurea-induced partial mushroom body ablation does not affect acquisition and retention of olfactory differential conditioning in honeybees

The mushroom bodies (MBs), a paired structure in the insect brain, play a major role in storing and retrieving olfactory memories. We tested whether olfactory learning and odor processing is impaired in honeybees in which MB subunits were partially ablated. Using hydroxyurea (HU) to selectively kill proliferating cells, we created honeybees with varying degrees of MB lesions. Three-dimensional reconstructions of brains were generated to analyze the drug-induced morphological changes. These reconstructions show that, with few exceptions, only the MBs were affected by the drug, while other brain areas remained morphometrically intact. Typically, lesions affected only the MB in one hemisphere of the brain. To preclude HU-induced physiologic deficits in the antennal lobe (AL) affecting olfactory learning, we measured the responses to odors in the AL using an in vivo calcium imaging approach. The response patterns did not differ between the AL of intact versus ablated brain sides within respective specimens. We, therefore, carried out side-specific classical discriminative olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension reflex (PER) with control bees and with HU-treated bees with or without MB ablations. All experimental groups learned equally to discriminate and respond to a rewarded (CS+) but not to an unrewarded (CS-) conditioned stimulus during acquisition and retention tests. Thus, our results indicate that partial MB lesions do not affect this form of elemental olfactory learning.     

Hydroxyurea‐induced partial mushroom body ablation does not affect acquisition and retention of olfactory differential conditioning in honeybees

The mushroom bodies (MBs), a paired structure in the insect brain, play a major role in storing and retrieving olfactory memories. We tested whether olfactory learning and odor processing is impaired in honeybees in which MB subunits were partially ablated. Using hydroxyurea (HU) to selectively kill proliferating cells, we created honeybees with varying degrees of MB lesions. Three‐dimensional reconstructions of brains were generated to analyze the drug‐induced morphological changes. These reconstructions show that, with few exceptions, only the MBs were affected by the drug, while other brain areas remained morphometrically intact. Typically, lesions affected only the MB in one hemisphere of the brain. To preclude HU‐induced physiologic deficits in the antennal lobe (AL) affecting olfactory learning, we measured the responses to odors in the AL using an in vivo calcium imaging approach. The response patterns did not differ between the AL of intact versus ablated brain sides within respective specimens. We, therefore, carried out side‐specific classical discriminative olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension reflex (PER) with control bees and with HU‐treated bees with or without MB ablations. All experimental groups learned equally to discriminate and respond to a rewarded (CS+) but not to an unrewarded (CS?) conditioned stimulus during acquisition and retention tests. Thus, our results indicate that partial MB lesions do not affect this form of elemental olfactory learning. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Neurobiol 53: 343–360, 2002     

Contextual fear conditioning differs for infant, adolescent, and adult rats

Contextual fear conditioning was tested in infant, adolescent, and adult rats in terms of Pavlovian-conditioned suppression. When a discrete auditory-conditioned stimulus (CS) was paired with footshock (unconditioned stimulus, US) within the largely olfactory context, infants and adolescents conditioned to the context with substantial effectiveness, but adult rats did not. When unpaired presentations of the CS and US occurred within the context, contextual fear conditioning was strong for adults, weak for infants, but about as strong for adolescents as when pairings of CS and US occurred in the context. Nonreinforced presentations of either the CS or context markedly reduced contextual fear conditioning in infants, but, in adolescents, CS extinction had no effect on contextual fear conditioning, although context extinction significantly reduced it. Neither CS extinction nor context extinction affected responding to the CS–context compound in infants, suggesting striking discrimination between the compound and its components. Female adolescents showed the same lack of effect of component extinction on response to the compound as infants, but CS extinction reduced responding to the compound in adolescent males, a sex difference seen also in adults. Theoretical implications are discussed for the development of perceptual-cognitive processing and hippocampus role.     

Analysis of associative learning in the terrestrial mollusc Limax maximus. II. Appetitive learning

Summary The odor and taste processing systems of the terrestrial mollusc Limax maximus have been shown capable of a number of complex computations. Most of the complex higher-order features of Limax learning have been demonstrated using differential aversive conditioning. The present experiments probe the appetitive learning ability of Limax. In the first experiment a differential appetitive classical conditioning procedure was used. An aversive CS⁺ odor was paired with an attractive taste while a CS^– odor was explicitly unpaired with the attractive taste. This appetitive conditioning procedure dramatically increased the preference for the CS⁺ odor. Further experiments determined the time course of acquisition, the effect of an extinction procedure and long-term retention of the appetitive conditioning. Now that Limax has been shown capable of appetitive conditioning, the neural network simulation of Limax learning, called LIMAX, can be examined for its ability to display appetitive conditioning.Abbreviations AA amyl acetate - CS conditioned stimulus - ISI interstimulus interval - ITI intertrial interval - MCH methylcyclohexanol - US unconditioned stimulus     

不同日龄和吊飞过程中桔小实蝇成虫飞行肌能量代谢相关酶活性的变化

【目的】明确桔小实蝇Bactrocera dorsalis(Hendel)飞行肌对能源物质的利用。【方法】通过生化方法测定了能源物质代谢相关5种酶[3-磷酸甘油醛脱氢酶(GAPDH)、3-磷酸甘油脱氢酶(GDH)、乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)、柠檬酸合酶(CS)和3-羟酰辅酶A脱氢酶(HOAD)]活性的变化。【结果】桔小实蝇成虫中所测的5种酶活性随日龄的变化而变化,4日龄GAPDH,GDH,LDH和CS活性最高,20日龄HOAD活性最高。吊飞过程中,GAPDH,GDH和CS的活性变化基本一致,随吊飞时间的延长活性逐渐升高;LDH和HOAD的活性变化雌、雄虫完全不同。雄虫LDH活性除吊飞2 h外其他时间均高于静息状态,雌虫则始终低于静息状态;雄虫HOAD活性只有吊飞24 h低于静息状态水平,而雌虫吊飞后HOAD活性一直在静息状态水平及以下波动。【结论】桔小实蝇飞行所利用的能源物质包括糖类和脂肪,以糖类能源为主。吊飞过程中,雄虫除可以进行高速有氧代谢以外,还具备一定的无氧代谢能力,而雌虫只进行有氧代谢;雄虫能利用脂肪供给能量,雌虫则几乎不动用脂肪。研究结果为进一步阐明桔小实蝇的迁飞行为机制提供了依据。