Residual stresses and retained austenite evolution in SAE 52100 steel under non-ideal rolling contact loading

Residual stresses are introduced and modified during manufacturing as well as by normal use under rolling contact loading. Operations such as heat treatments, shot peening, grinding, etc., are known to alter the magnitude and distribution of residual stresses. Our work revolves around the changes in magnitude and distribution of residual stresses, as they relate to deformation and the strain induced transformation of retained austenite. The residual stresses and retained austenite measurements were carried out using X-ray diffraction techniques. The rolling contact fatigue lives of different variants of SAE 52100 bearing steel were evaluated in a 5-ball-rod rolling contact fatigue machine under testing conditions leading to surface nucleated failure, i.e. non-ideal rolling contact. The tests were accelerated by applying well controlled micro-indentations on the wear track. The contribution of the residual stresses and amount of retained austenite to the rolling contact fatigue life were analyzed.     

The influence of contact stress on the wear of a carburized steel case with a high content of retained austenite

The effect of contact stress on the action of retained austenite in the wear of a carburized steel case under conditions of rolling-sliding contact was investigated. There is a limiting contact stress for the negative and positive effects of retained austenite. Retained austenite has an inhibiting effect on the nucleation and propagation of fatigue cracks during frictional contact.     

耐高温磨损的合金钢导辊及高温耐磨性能研究

研究了一种具有奥氏体基体及碳化物硬质点的合金钢 ,并用于制造高速线材轧制生产线上的导辊 ,使用温度在 5 6 0℃下 ,合金钢导辊具有良好的耐磨性。分析了时效温度对奥氏体基体硬度及合金钢耐磨性的影响 ,研究表明提高奥氏体基体的硬度对改善合金钢高温耐磨性具有明显的作用。     

Macroscopic and microscopic changes in the surface layers of annealed and case-hardened steel rollers due to rolling contact

Measurements of the residual stress and observations of the microstructure at the surface and in the subsurface of rollers were performed during rolling contact fatigue tests of annealed 0.45% carbon steel and case-hardened nickel-chromium steel rollers. Compressive residual stresses in annealed rollers were induced by the rolling contact. With case-hardened rollers they were induced by heat treatment prior to the rolling contact fatigue tests. After the rolling contact fatigue tests the compressive residual stresses on the surface of the annealed rollers and in the subsurface of the case-hardened rollers relaxed; a characteristic substructure was formed by the stress cycles, which caused surface failure. It was confirmed that the microcracks leading to surface failure initiate on the surfaces of annealed rollers and in the subsurface of case-hardened rollers.     

The effect of changing the rolling direction on the rolling contact fatigue lives of annealed and case-hardened steel rollers

The effects of changing the rolling direction and of repeated loading on the rolling contact fatigue lives of annealed 0.45% carbon steel rollers and case-hardened nickel-chromium steel rollers under conditions of sliding rolling contact were studied. The influence of plastic flow in the subsurface layer on the rolling fatigue life was examined. The increase in the rolling fatigue life of an annealed steel roller due to a change in the rolling direction was significant, especially when the rolling direction was changed just before the formation of macroscopic surface cracks and pits. The effect with case-hardened steel rollers was negligible. The varying effects of changing the rolling direction on the rolling fatigue life were due to differences in work-hardening and the extent of plastic flow in the rollers.     

Study on relative wear resistance and wear stability of high-speed steel with high vanadium content

In this work, a new concept of wear stability was put forward by authors, and it was quantitatively expressed by factor of wear stability. Different hardness, impact toughness and retained austenite content high-speed steel with high vanadium content samples were obtained by varying heat treatment conditions. The effects of hardness, impact toughness and retained austenite content on relatively wear resistance and wear stability were studied under abrasive wear condition. Results show that relative wear resistance increases with increasing hardness or decreasing impact toughness, whereas the wear stability rises with the increasing of hardness or impact toughness. The analyzing results reveal that mechanical behaviors are only apparent factors to influence wear behaviors. Relative wear resistance substantially depends on retained austenite content (Ar). At retained austenite content of about 30 vol.%, the relative wear resistance is optimal. However, wear stability is scarcely influenced by retained austenite content, which depends on the maximum changing amount of retained austenite under certain condition (ΔAr) in essence. With increasing ΔAr, wear stability linearly decreases.     

Experimental Study of the Smoothing Effect of a Ceramic Rolling Element on a Bearing Raceway in Contaminated Lubrication

The effects of steel and ceramic rolling elements on protrusions from the raceway of a bearing were experimentally investigated. Such protrusions, which are normally caused by solid contaminants in the lubricating oil, create stress concentrations and lead to a reduction in the rolling contact fatigue life of the bearing. To compare the over-rolling effects of steel and ceramic rollers, experiments with steel discs with artificial dents on the surfaces were performed using a modified twin-disc machine. The results show that ceramic rollers can reduce the height of the protruded edge of an artificial dent more than steel rollers, which means that they are more effective in smoothing a damaged surface. The stresses at the contact were calculated by finite element analysis based on the deformed profile of the dented surface. The reduction in the stress level due to the smoothing effect of ceramic rollers is greater than that of steel rollers. According to the Lundberg–Palmgren bearing fatigue model, that smoothing ensures a significantly longer rolling contact fatigue life for a bearing. To put the idea into practice, a rolling ball bearing with two of its nine steel balls replaced with silicon nitride balls (referred to as a “partial hybrid bearing”) was run, together with a full steel bearing of the same model, on a bearing tester in a highly contaminated lubrication condition. The results show that the partial hybrid bearing suffers from less damage in terms of wear. The post-experiment examination of the damaged surface of the bearing raceway found that the surface of the partial hybrid bearing was smoother than that of the full steel bearing. This reveals the smoothing effect of the rolling ceramic element on the contaminant-damaged bearing surface.     

Effect of hardness difference on the surface durability and surface failure of steel rollers

Experiments with pairs of rollers of different hardnesses designed to assess the effect of hardness difference on surface durability and surface failure are described. Sliding-rolling contact fatigue tests were performed with combinations of thermally refined, through-hardened and induction-hardened 0.45% C steel rollers. The mode of failure is discussed in relation to the hardness difference between the rollers and the presence of residual stresses. The effect of hardness on the modulus of elasticity was also examined. An empirical equation was devised to describe the relationship between the rolling contact fatigue limit under hertzian stress and the surface hardness.     

Plasma and vacuum carburizing processes and mechanical properties of SCM 415 steel

The plasma and vacuum carburizing processes are innovative surface modification techniques for potential applications in manufacturing processes of vehicle components. In this study, the influence of this relatively new process on the surface hardness of SCM 415 low-alloy steel (0.15% C) was investigated under various process conditions involving gas composition, gas pressure, plasma current density, temperature and time. The effective plasma carburizing temperature of SCM 415 steel was found to be higher than 850°C, and the case depth was proportional to the square root of carburizing time under the same current density. Also, high cycle fatigue and dry wear characteristics of vacuum carburized SCM 415 steel were evaluated after various heat treatments. Comparing the fatigue and wear characteristics of vacuum carburized specimens to those of hot annealed or reheat quenched specimens, the wear resistant property as well as bending fatigue limits were found to be substantially improved. The optimum amount of retained austenite exists for the maximum fatigue strength in vacuum carburized steels. Through quantitative analysis of the retained austenite using X-ray diffractometer, this value was found to be about 4%.     

The effects of retained austenite on dry sliding wear behavior of carburized steels

Ring-on-square tests on two kinds of low-alloy carburized steel which were AISI 8620 and 4140 were carried out to study the dry sliding wear behavior. The influence of different retained austenite level of 6% to 40% was evaluated while trying to eliminate other factors. Test results show that the effects of grain size and carburized steel species are negligible in dry sliding wear behavior. While the influence of retained austenite is negligible at 20 kg load condition, wear resistance is decreased at 40 kg load condition as the retained austenite level is increased from 6% to 30%. However, wear resistance is again increased above about 30% of retained austenite level at 40 kg load condition.     

高铬铸铁中残余奥氏体对冲击疲劳磨损的影响

采用MLD-10磨损试验机及附加装置研究高铬铸铁中残余奥氏体对冲击疲劳磨损的影响。试验得出,残余奥氏体可阻止疲劳裂纹的萌生和扩展,提高冲击疲劳抗力,降低冲击疲劳磨损。     

The dry wear resistance of a carbonitrided steel

Rolling-sliding tests on a low alloy carbonitrided steel were carried out in order to study its dry wear behaviour. The influence of different retained austenite contents was evaluated. Subsurface fatigue is considered to be the basic wear mechanism. The similar wear resistances shown in specimens with small and large amounts of retained austenite are attributed to the balancing effect on their mechanical properties of softening by dynamical recovery and hardening by plastic strain respectively.     

A First Order Solution for the Stress Concentration Present at the End of Roller Contact

An approximate solution of the “critical” maximum compressive stress present in rolling contact fatigue is given. Geometries normally used in rolling contact rig tests having contact areas varying from rectangular to full elliptical contact are considered. For cylinders in contact it is shown that the first order solution for end of contact stress is considerably above the nominal line contact Hertz stress usually calculated. Confirmation of the approximate stresses calculated is provided by deformation studies just into the plastic regime, and rolling contact fatigue tests on both cylindrical and 100-inch radius toroidal specimen rollers.     

Influence of soft surface modification on rolling contact fatigue strength of machine element

Various surface modification methods have been employed in order to improve the tribological performance of machine elements. In this work, electroless Ni–P alloy plating and sulfurizing treatments were employed, and the surface modified steel rollers and ball bearings were fatigue-tested under a pure or free rolling contact condition. The fatigue lives of both rollers and bearings were improved by these surface modifications. The contact pressure and subsurface stresses of the surface modified rollers and bearings were analyzed. The reason why the rolling fatigue strengths of surface modified rollers and bearings were higher than those of the non-coated ones would be due to the smaller contact pressure and subsurface stresses by the smaller elasticity as well as the conformity of the plated layer.     

高碳贝氏体轴承钢滚动接触疲劳性能的研究

以GCr15Si1Mo贝氏体轴承钢为研究对象,在油润滑条件和无润滑条件下,对不同初始碳化物体积分数的试样进行滚动接触疲劳试验,采用扫描电镜观察试验前后试样的表面形貌和碳化物分布,并通过Weibull曲线确定试样滚动接触疲劳性能的优劣性。结果表明,在无润滑条件下,碳化物体积分数为1.9%的试样滚动接触疲劳性能优于碳化物体积分数为5.1%的试样。在油润滑条件下,贝氏体轴承钢的滚动接触疲劳性能的优劣性依次为：无初始碳化物试样、碳化物体积分数为5.1%试样、碳化物体积分数为1.9%试样。碳化物作为基体的硬质相,很容易成为疲劳源,无初始碳化物的贝氏体轴承钢的滚动接触疲劳性能优于有碳化物的贝氏体轴承钢;碳化物脱落后的凹坑增大了润滑油和试样表面的粘着力,有利于增加油膜厚度,从而提高滚动接触疲劳寿命。     

Relative fatigue life estimation of cylindrical hollow rollers in general pure rolling contact

Solid and hollow cylindrical rollers in pure rolling contact have been modelled. The two rollers are subjected to a combined normal and tangential loading. The tangential loading is one‐third of the normal loading value. The finite element package, ABAQUS, is used to study the stress distribution and the resulting deformations in the bodies of the rollers. Then the Ioannides–Harris fatigue life model for rolling bearings is applied on the ABAQUS numerical results to investigate the fatigue life of the solid and hollow rollers. Using the fatigue life of the solid rollers as the reference fatigue life, the relative fatigue lives of hollow rollers are determined. Four main different hollowness percentages are been studied: 20, 40, 60 and 80%. The hollowness percentage is the ratio of the diameter of the hole to the outer diameter of the cylinder. For each of those hollowness percentages, two cases are studied – when the two rollers in contact are hollow and when one hollow roller is in contact with a solid roller. This study includes two main models: Model 1, where the two cylindrical rollers in contact are of the same size, and Model 2, where the two rollers in contact are not of the same size. The estimated relative fatigue lives of hollow rollers showed a great improvement of the fatigue life compared with solid rollers under the same loading conditions. This was a result of the redistribution of stresses in the contact zone in the case of hollow rollers. Redistribution of stresses over a larger volume of the roller body decreased the peak stress and reduced the volume under risk. Increasing the hollowness percentage from 20 to 60% increased the flexibility of the roller, and better stress distribution was achieved, which resulted in improving the fatigue life. Although 80% of hollowness rollers have more flexibility than 60% of hollowness rollers, the bending stresses (σ_b) on the inner surface of the rollers tend to decrease the fatigue life. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Unlubricated sliding and rolling/sliding wear behavior of continuously cooled, low/medium carbon bainitic steels

The development of low and medium carbon bainitic steels for railroad track applications is traced through investigations to understand wear behavior. Carbide-free bainite consisting of bainitic ferrite laths, with or without lath boundary retained austenite, has emerged as the best microstructure. Cast and wrought 0.25%C, 1.75%Si, Mo-B steels have exhibited wear resistance comparable with that of Hadfield's austenitic steel under severe rolling/sliding contact.     

Investigation on Wear Resistance and Fatigue Damage of Laser Cladding Coating on Wheel and Rail Materials under the Oil Lubrication Condition

The aim of this study is to investigate the wear resistance and fatigue spalling damage of wheel and rail materials with and without laser cladding coating under oil lubrication using a rolling–sliding machine. It illustrates that the laser cladding Co-based alloy coating improves the wear resistance of wheel and rail rollers. Serious spalling is dominant for untreated wheel and rail rollers. The wheel or rail roller undergoing laser cladding treatment takes on slight abrasive wear and visible ploughing. Furthermore, there are no cracks on the contact surface and subsurface. The laser cladding Co-based alloy coating exhibits outstanding resistance to wear and fatigue spalling damage due to its microstructure in the coating under oil lubrication.     

点接触纯滚动被试轴承球润滑性能研究

润滑工况是滚动接触疲劳寿命的主要影响因素之一,而润滑剂、接触形式等因素都对润滑状态有所影响。采用新研制的三点接触纯滚动轴承球加速疲劳试验机,研究了被试球钢球和陶瓷球在润滑油N32润滑下的润滑性能,并计算了最小油膜厚度及润滑膜参数,分析了润滑状态。结果表明,所用的润滑油N32是合适的,被测试的钢球和陶瓷球工作在弹性流体动力润滑(EHL)状态。分析结果为钢球和陶瓷球的对比滚动接触疲劳性能试验提供了理论基础。     

Ways of improving the tribological properties of steel gas-flame coatings

The paper reports the results of study of the structure and properties of steel gas-flame coatings. The effect of the formation of an abnormally great amount of retained austenite during the deposition of coatings from steel wire is found. Techniques for implementing the “austenite effect” to improve the wear resistance of the coatings are proposed. A method for introducing a solid lubricant into the coating during its deposition is developed. A possibility of enhancing the tribological properties of the coatings for friction members is shown. It is based on thermochemical treatment (nitrocarburizing) and tribomodification of the friction surfaces during running-in with a lubricant containing nanosized modifiers.