基于DASLab的管材轴压胀形的加载控制

内压与轴向压力的合理匹配是管材轴压胀形成败的关键因素。本文利用数据采集与处理软件DASYLab实现了轴向压力基于内压的线性加载控制，为进一步研究更为复杂的管材轴压胀形的加载控制关系奠定了实验基础。     

薄壁管液压胀形加载路径研究

采用塑性变形理论研究了薄壁管液压胀形过程中轴向载荷与内压力的变化情况。在两种不同变形方式下对薄壁管胀形过程进行分析，分别就两种变形方式提出了薄壁管胀形过程中轴压与内压的理论计算方法，获得了管材在不同应变比下变形时的载荷变化曲线，探讨了薄壁管胀形工艺中确定加载路径的变化范围。     

径压胀形中管材的填充性及成形性分析

通过对不锈钢管材径压胀形过程进行有限元数值模拟，对成形管材断面对角线长度变化趋势及壁厚分布规律进行了分析与比较，探讨了加载方式、管端约束条件（管端自由与管端固定）及摩擦条件对管材填充性及成形性的影响规律。结果表明，自由胀形直径或内压力越大，则管材的填充性越好，但成形性越差；管端固定时会使管材的填充性及成形性变差；摩擦使胀形管材断面形状不完全对称，且随着自由胀形直径或内压力的增大而显著。     

内补液增压式THF性能测试装置开发及试验研究

材料性能对液压胀形工艺(THF)及产品质量有重大影响,传统单向拉伸试验所得材料性能不能很好反映管材液压胀形性能。开发了一种简单实用可在单动压力机上使用的试验装置,可用于不同材料及尺寸管材的液压胀形试验,以确定管材胀形性能。该装置不需要复杂的外部供液系统,而是利用其内部的补液腔自动、同步地建立起胀形所需液压力及轴向载荷,两载荷比值可通过合理设计补液腔直径得到。可以实现管材自然胀形、轴向压缩胀形、两端不同约束下的胀形和一定程度的比例加载胀形。一系列胀形对比试验表明：管端约束方式对自然胀形有较大影响,而对轴向压缩胀形影响较小;液压力、轴向载荷及其比值对轴向压缩胀形有较大影响。     

液压胀形汽车桥壳的数值模拟及其试验研究

用有限元方法对液压胀形的汽车桥壳进行了数值模拟,得出轴向压缩量与液体胀形压力间的合理加载路径.通过试验和模拟对比分析了第一次胀形时液体压力相对管坯轴向压缩量恒定不变、液体压力按轴向压缩量线性变化、极限失稳及胀裂的情况,揭示出起皱的主要原因是液体压力过低,起皱后不利于后续胀形,而胀裂的主要原因是液体压力过高;第二次胀形时试件退火是最终成形成功的重要影响因素.模拟结果与相同条件下的试验结果对比,最大误差5 9%.     

管材液压成形中的数值模拟方法

根据动力显式增量有限元方法和BT壳单元提出了液压胀形模拟算法.该算法充分考虑了管材胀形时的液体压力加载曲线、管材外壁与模具的润滑情况、轴向进给、径向进给等实际工艺条件对管材成形性的影响,能够预测零件成形过程中的开裂、起皱等缺陷,从而优化成形工艺参数,提高零件的成形工艺性.算法具有通用性,能够模拟轴线为直线、曲线以及带径向侧冲头的各种复杂管材的成形.将算法集成到FASTAMP软件中,通过模拟三台阶轴的液压胀形,并与实验数据比较,验证了算法的准确性与实用性.     

小型桥壳液压胀形初始变形条件分析及成形试验

介绍了小型汽车桥壳的液压胀形工艺,提出了初始胀形内压的表达式,预测了初始胀形内压与轴向推力的匹配关系（即经向应力比的大小）对预胀形时各部分变形顺序的影响。在普通液压机上进行了两种加载路径下的液压胀形试验,在初始经向应力比小于零并保持恒内压的条件下,预胀形管坯先变形成两侧高、中部低的双鼓形,经增压后将中部胀起;在初始经向应力比大于零且内压恒定的条件下,预胀形管坯中部沿轴向胀裂;两种加载路径下,管坯扁锥体凸起与胀形区之间均产生了明显内凹缺陷。理论分析与试验结果均表明,初始变形条件对小型桥壳的预胀形有重要影响。     

低碳钢管液压胀形的数值模拟研究

基于板料成形模拟的CAE软件Dynaform,研究了低碳钢管在不同加压方式下的自由胀形,比较了单直线加压、折线加压与脉动加压三种加压方式对胀形质量的影响;同时,研究了折线加压下不同梯度的加载压力对成形的影响;在脉动加压下,研究了不同的基础压力与脉动幅值、轴向进给速度对成形的影响。结果表明,在脉动加压与合适的折线加压方式下,管材胀形区的厚度更高,成形质量较佳。轴向进给速度、脉动幅值与基础压力的大小均会对成形结果产生影响。     

基于径压胀形确定管材的摩擦因数

摩擦对管材液压成形有极大的影响,管材摩擦因数的确定是一项极其重要的工作。在分析比较现有测试方法的基础上,基于径压胀形原理及其变形规律提出确定管材液压成形胀形区摩擦因数的新模型。该模型以恒定内压力下圆形管材径压胀形成方形断面后,以断面对角线长度差作为确定摩擦因数的测量指标。对比对角线长度差的有限元数值模拟结果及实测结果,以此确定管材液压成形时胀形区的摩擦因数。对低碳钢及不锈钢管的有限元数值模拟分析表明：对角线长度差与摩擦因数及内压力均成指数关系,该长度差对摩擦力很敏感且可方便测量,也可作为针对管材液压成形胀形区润滑剂特性的评定指标。所提出的新模型具有简单、实用等优点。     

管材径压胀形技术

阐述了管材径压胀形工作原理,归纳了该技术相对自然胀形技术的优越性。重点介绍了近年来利用管材径压胀形技术将管材截面胀形成三角形、矩形和梯形时,管材胀形规律及变形特点的研究现状。最后指出了管材径压胀形技术的发展方向和亟待解决的问题。     

The effect of tube dimensions on optimized pressure and force loading paths in tube hydroforming process

The precise control of internal pressure and axial force loading paths significantly affects the final product quality. In this study, the effect of tube dimensions on the pressure and force loading paths in tube hydroforming process is investigated by using simulated annealing optimization method linked to a commercial finite element code. The optimized loading paths, obtained for different tube geometries with a constant expansion ratio, are then compared. The effects of initial diameter and wall thickness on shape conformation, optimal internal pressure and axial force (or feed) are discussed on the basis of optimal loading paths. Several guidelines in prediction and determination of tube hydroforming parameters are obtained by optimization analysis.     

Study on experimental approaches of forming limit curve for tube hydroforming

This paper proposes a set of experimental approaches to establish the forming limit curve (FLC) in different forming modes for tube hydroforming. In tension–compression strain state, analytical models are constructed to determine the linear strain paths at the pole of the hydroformed tube, and a self-designed free hydroforming apparatus with axial feeding and internal pressure are used to carry out the bulge tests. In plane strain state, the difference is that both ends of the tube are fixed with different punches. In tension–tension strain state, a novel hydroforming apparatus are designed. The novel device requires the simultaneous application of lateral compression force and internal pressure to control the material flow under tension–tension strain states. The linear strain paths for the right hand side of FLC by finite element method simulation are calculated. The linear strain paths in different strain states are verified and the FLC of roll-formed QSTE340 seamed tube is constructed through the proposed experimental approaches. Comparison between simulation and experimental results for hydroforming process of front crossmember shows that the experimental FLC is accurate and valid for tube hydroforming.     

Optimization of loading path in hydroforming T-shape using fuzzy control algorithm

The loading path is crucial to the quality of forming parts in the process of tube hydroforming, and thus the design and optimization of loading path is an important issue for tube hydroforming. Wrinkling is a catastrophic defect for thin-walled tube hydroforming. In order to avoid wrinkling, an adaptive simulation approach integrated with a fuzzy control algorithm is used to optimize the loading path of hydroforming a T-shaped tube. The tubular material used is stainless steel and has an outer diameter of 103 mm and the wall thickness of 1.5 mm. The controlled variables are the axial feeding, the counterpunch displacement, and the internal pressure. A code is developed to make the optimization automatically, which works together with LS-DYNA. Six evaluation functions are adopted for identifying geometrical shape and quality of T-shape. Failure indicators obtained from the simulation results are used as the input of the fuzzy control, and then process parameters are adjusted according to the expert experiences in the fuzzy controller. In this way, a reasonable loading path for producing a sound T-shape is obtained, and also a T-shaped product is successfully hydroformed by experiment. The result shows that the fuzzy control algorithm can provide an adequately reliable loading path for hydroforming T-shaped tubes.     

内高压成形机理与关键技术

在中国国家杰出青年科学基金资助项目“镁合金热态液力成形技术”、中国国家自然科学基金资助项目“轻体件高内压液力成形机理的研究”、“管材热态内压成形新方法及其机理研究”和“激光拼焊管内高压成形机理”、以及中国教育部高等学校博士学科点专项科研基金资助项目“镁合金热态内高压成形机理研究”共同资助下,开展内高压成形机理及关键技术研究,在内高压成形塑性变形规律、起皱和破裂等失稳行为、提高成形极限和降低成形压力方法,以及液力胀接、热态内压成形和拼焊管内高压成形等方面取得重要进展,并在汽车和航天等领域实现内高压成形技术产业化应用,报告上述研究的理论和工程体系。 根据塑性变形特点,将内高压成形分为变径管内高压成形(IHPF of TPVD)、弯曲轴线管内高压成形(IHPF of TPCA)和多通管内高压成形(IHPF of TPB/BT)等3类,提出IHPF of TPVD由充填、成形、整形等步骤组成,IHPF of TPCA由弯曲、预成形、内高压成形等步骤组成,IHPF of TPB/BT由胀形、补料、整形等步骤组成。以此为出发点,通过实验和理论分析,研究IHPF塑性变形规律与失稳行为。     

Hydroforming of aluminum extrusion tubes for automotive applications. Part I: buckling, wrinkling and bursting analyses of aluminum tubes

Three possible failure modes have been identified in tube hydroforming: buckling, wrinkling and bursting. A general theoretical framework is proposed for analyzing these failure modes as an elastoplastic bifurcation problem. This framework enables advanced yield criteria and various strain-hardening laws to be readily incorporated into the analysis. The effect of plastic deformation on the geometric instability in tube hydroforming, such as global buckling, axisymmetric wrinkling and asymmetric wrinkling, is precisely treated by using the exact plane stress moduli tensor. A mathematical formulation for predicting the localized condition for bursting failure is established herein. Furthermore, the critical conditions governing the onset of buckling, axisymmetric wrinkling and asymmetric wrinkling are derived in closed-form expressions for the critical axial compressive stresses. Closed-form solutions for the critical stress are developed based on Neale–Hutchinson's constitutive equation and an assumed deformation theory of plasticity. It is demonstrated that the onset of asymmetric wrinkling always requires a higher critical axial compressive stress than the axisymmetric one under the context of tube hydroforming with applied internal pressure and hence the asymmetric wrinkling mode can be excluded in the analysis of tube hydroforming. Parametric studies show that buckling and axisymmetric wrinkling are strongly dependent on geometric parameters such as t₀/r₀ and r₀/ℓ₀, and that axisymmetric wrinkling is the predominant mode for short tubes while global buckling occurs for long slender tubes.     

Application of segmented rubber rings to increase the sealing efficiency in hydroforming

The tube hydroforming process uses a pressurized fluid as the forming medium, and the sealing efficiency of the internal fluid has an important influence on the hydroformability. This study investigates the applicability of segmented rubber rings to prevent pressure leakage in hydroforming. When the target shape is non-axisymmetric, the possibility of pressure leakage is increased due to the biased stress distribution on the punch. A sealing system is proposed, which is composed of segmented rubber rings, a cylindrical sleeve, and a punch with an end fillet. When the rubber rings are compressed, the reaction force acting on the rings contributes to the prevention of pressure leakage. The circumference of the tube end becomes more tightly sealed by the axial pressure between the punch and sleeve. A deformation analysis was conducted using a compression test, which revealed that the combined use of a steel ring with a rubber ring was more efficient in preventing fluid leakage. The enhanced sealing effect of the proposed system with rubber and steel rings was confirmed by comparing the experimental results with a conventional hydroforming process.     

Analytical approach to bursting in tube hydroforming using diffuse plastic instability

Analytical studies on onset of bursting failure in tube hydroforming under combined internal pressure and independent axial feeding are carried out. Bursting is irrecoverable phenomenon due to local instability under excessive tensile stress. In this paper, in order to predict the bursting failure diffuse plastic instability based on the Hill's quadratic plastic potential is introduced. The incremental theory of plasticity for anisotropic material is adopted and then the hydroforming limit and bursting failure diagram with respect to axial feeding and hydraulic pressure are presented. The influences of the plastic anisotropy on plastic instability, the limit stress and the bursting pressure are also investigated. Finally, the stress-based hydroforming limit diagram obtained from the above approach is verified with experimental results.     

Prediction of necking of high strength steel tubes during hydroforming—multi-axial loading

This article studies tubular hydroforming of high strength low alloy (HSLA) and dual phase (DP600) straight tubes under the action of end feeding loads. Experiments demonstrate that higher end feed loads enhance the formability of the tubes and increase the internal fluid pressure for onset of necking and bursting. Because of the action of the internal pressure and the axial compressive load, the onset of localization (necking) is due to a complex three-dimensional state of stress. Using free expansion experiments, approximate upper and lower bound strain-based forming limit curves are determined for the tube materials. These limit curves, in turn, are used to derive upper and lower bound extended stress-based forming limit curves [Simha et al., Prediction of necking in tubular hydroforming using an extended stress-based FLC. Transactions of the ASME Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology 2007;129(1): 36-47]. In conjunction with finite element computations that use solid elements to model the tube, these stress-based limit curves are used to predict upper and lower bound necking pressures under the action of end feed loading. These predictions of necking pressures, when an appropriate coefficient of tube-die friction is used, are found to bracket the experimentally measured necking pressures. Computations using plane stress shell elements to model the tubes are shown to give erroneous results, since the plane stress approximation is not valid when tubes are hydroformed in a die.     

脉动液压成形技术与设备

介绍脉动液压成形技术的成形原理、工艺特点及应用领域。从工艺和材料两方面对脉动液压成形提高材料成形能力的机理进行研究,试验证明脉动载荷一方面能够促进管材液压成形时的补料、降低摩擦力的阻碍作用并利用成形过程中小褶皱的出现与消失提高变形的均匀性;另一方面,对于奥氏体不锈钢,脉动载荷可以增强形变过程中的相变增塑效应,从而提高其成形性。自主设计并研制出能实现工业化生产需求的自动化程度高的脉动液压成形设备,为该项技术在汽车、航空及航天制造领域中的推广和应用提供重要的理论指导和实践探索。     

An experimental and numerical study of necking initiation in aluminium alloy tubes during hydroforming

In this paper, a combined experimental and numerical investigation of free hydroforming of aluminium alloy tubes is conducted. The tubes are subjected to different loading histories involving axial compression and internal pressure. The circumferential and axial strains experienced by the tubes are continuously recorded along with the pressure and axial load. The numerical simulations are carried out using both 2D axisymmetric and 3D finite-element formulations by applying the experimentally recorded axial load and internal pressure. In the latter, a geometric imperfection is introduced in the form of wall thickness reduction at the tube mid-length in order to trigger necking which happens after significant bulging and beyond the stage of peak pressure. The strain histories and peak pressures obtained from the simulations agree well with those determined from the experiments. Further, the forming limit curve predicted by the simulations as well as from a M–K analysis incorporating the computed strain paths corroborate well with the experimental data. The role of nonproportional straining on the mechanics of failure of the tubes due to bulging and necking is studied in detail.