Effect of aspect ratio of footing on behavior of two closely-spaced footings on geogrid-reinforced sand

This paper presents the results of laboratory model tests carried out on two closely-spaced interfering footings resting on the surface of geogrid-reinforced and unreinforced sand bed. The effect of aspect ratio (or shape) of the footing on interference behavior is studied by adopting three pairs of model footings of different sizes. The length (L) to width (B) ratio (i.e., aspect ratio) of the footings is varied from 1.0 to 2.0. The effects of single layer of geogrid on footing interference and bearing capacity improvement are investigated. The optimum depth of the geogrid layer for both interfering and isolated footings is found to be one-third of the footing width and it is not dependent on the aspect ratio of the footing. The optimum spacing between the interfering footings is found to be 1.5 times the width of the footing. Lower efficiency factor is observed for interfering footings resting on the reinforced sand compared to the unreinforced sand. Higher bearing capacity ratio (BCR) is observed for isolated footing than that of interfering footings when BCR is measured based on ultimate bearing capacity values of reinforced and unreinforced cases and BCR value increases as the aspect ratio of the footing increases.     

Model testing and numerical investigation of interference effect of closely spaced ring and circular footings on reinforced sand

Due to heavy loads and the non-availability of suitable construction sites, engineers are often required to place footings at close spacing. These footings influence each other, including effects on load-settlement and bearing capacity behavior. In this research the bearing capacity of closely located ring and circular footings on reinforced sand has been investigated numerically and experimentally. The goal of this study is to evaluate the interference effect on the bearing capacity of adjacent circular and ring footings. Footings on reinforced and unreinforced sand have been investigated. In this research, interference effect of footings, shape effects, effect of spacing between footings and also the effect of reinforcement layer on the bearing capacity are studied. To achieve these objectives laboratory circular and ring footing models and also numerical models were used. Finite element computer code PLAXIS 3D Foundation was used for numerical modeling. Experimental and numerical analysis results show that the ultimate bearing capacity of two closely spaced circular and ring footings is greatest when they stand exactly beside each other and decreases with increase in the spacing to footing diameter ratio (Δ/D). It is found that for Δ/D > 4, the bearing capacity of each adjacent footing is almost the same as that for single footing. This means that for a center-to-center spacing greater than 4D, no significant interference effect was observed and each footing acted more or less independently, similar to a single footing.     

Design method for stabilization of earth slopes with micropiles

As one of the measures for slope fast reinforcement, micropiles are always designed as a group. In this paper, an analytic model for the ultimate resistance of micropile is proposed, based on a beam–column equation and an existing p–y curve method. As such, an iterative process to find the bending moment and shear capacity of the micropile section has been developed. The formulation for calculating the inner force and deflection of the micropile using the finite difference method is derived. Special attention is given to determine the spacing of micropiles with the aim of achieving the ultimate shear capacity of the micropile group. Thus, a new design method for micropiles for earth slope stabilization is proposed that includes details about choosing a location for the micropiles within the existing slope, selecting micropile cross section, estimating the length of the micropile, evaluating the shear capacity of the micropiles group, calculating the spacing required to provide force to stabilize the slope and the design of the concrete cap beam. The application of the method to an embankment landslide in Qinghai province, China, is described, and monitoring data indicated that slope movement had effectively ceased as a result of the slope stabilization measure, which verified the effectiveness of the design method.     

微型桩杆塔基础水平承载力试验研究

通过现场真型试验,对微型桩基础的水平承载力进行研究。试验研究表明:二次注浆工艺有利于提高微型桩水平承载力,当采用投石注浆成桩时,应用于输电线路工程的微型桩必须采用二次注浆工艺;二次注浆工艺对微型桩水平承载力的提升作用因上部土层性质而异,尚需更多的试验和实践确定不同土层性质下二次注浆对微型桩水平承载力的提升效果;适当在微型桩群桩中布置一定的斜桩有利于提高群桩的水平承载力,但应考虑斜桩施工困难会对施工工期产生影响;进行微型桩基础设计时宜按水平允许位移进行控制,在合理选用设计参数的情况下,可采用本文提供的设计方法进行微型桩基础水平承载力的初步设计。     

Effect of footing shape and load eccentricity on behavior of geosynthetic reinforced sand bed

This paper presents the results from a laboratory modeling tests and numerical studies carried out on circular and square footings assuming the same plan area that rests on geosynthetic reinforced sand bed. The effects of the depth of the first and second layers of reinforcement, number of reinforcement layers on bearing capacity of the footings in central and eccentral loadings are investigated. The results indicated that in unreinforced condition, the ultimate bearing capacity is almost equal for both of the footings; but with reinforcing and increasing the number of reinforcement layers the ultimate bearing capacity of circular footing increased in a higher rate compared to square footing in both central and eccentrial loadings. The beneficial effect of a geosynthetic inclusion is largely dependent on the shape of footings. Also, by increasing the number of reinforcement layers, the tilt of circular footing decreased more than square footing. The SR (settlement reduction) of the reinforced condition shows that settlement at ultimate bearing capacity is heavily dependent on load eccentricity and is not significantly different from that for the unreinforced one. Also, close match between the experimental and numerical load-settlement curves and trend lines shown that the modeling approach utilized in this study can be reasonably adapted for reinforced soil applications.     

Influence of relative density of soil on performance of fiber-reinforced soil foundations

An experimental study has been carried out for studying the influence of combinations of relative densities of two layered soil system. The model tests have been performed for the case of circular and ring footings resting on randomly distributed fiber reinforced sand (RDFS) layer overlying unreinforced sand bed. The influence of relative density on, different type of footings i.e. circular and ring (r_i/r_o = 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6) footings; percentages of fiber in RDFS layer i.e. 0.5%, 0.75%, 1.00%, and 1.25%; and thickness of RDFS layer i.e. 0.5B, 0.75B, and 1.00B have been studied. Results have indicated that relative density, of both the RDFS layer as well as the bottom unreinforced sand layer, significantly influences the ultimate bearing capacity as well as the settlement. Improvement in terms of bearing capacity ratio (BCR) is more when top RDFS layer is compacted at 70% relative density with bottom unreinforced sand having 30% relative density. Moreover, in terms of settlement reduction, maximum improvement is observed when both the layers were compacted at 70% relative density.     

灌注细石混凝土微型桩基础下压试验研究

通过现场真型试验,对灌注细石混凝土成桩微型桩基础抗压承载机理及其抗压承载力计算方法进行了研究。试验表明:本次试验条件下,微型桩单桩可看成纯摩擦桩进行抗压承载力计算;微型桩群桩在极限下压荷载作用下,承台底部土体承担荷载比例仅为4.8%,在进行微型桩群桩抗压极限承载力计算时可不考虑承台底土的承载作用;由于承台对下压荷载的重分配,在下压荷载作用下,角桩承力最大,边桩次之,中桩最小;本次试验条件下,微型桩抗压群桩效应系数可取0.8进行计算。     

Behavior of strip footing on fiber-reinforced cemented sand adjacent to sheet pile wall

In urban areas, shallow foundations are often placed along the ground surface above a sheet pile wall. In this research, the potential benefits of reinforcing the active zone behind a model sheet pile wall by using polypropylene fiber and cement kiln dust have been investigated experimentally and numerically. Tests were conducted by varying parameters including fiber ratio (R_F), cement kiln dust (CKD) ratio, thickness of reinforced layer, footing location relative to the sheet pile wall and curing time of reinforced layer. Finite element computer code PLAXIS 2D foundation was used for numerical modeling. Close agreement between the experimental and numerical results was observed (maximum difference 14%). Experimental and numerical results clearly show that fiber insertion into the cemented soil causes an increase in ultimate bearing capacity of footing and significant reduction in the lateral deflection of the sheet pile wall. At higher fiber ratios (R_F ≥ 0.75%), the bearing capacity ratio (BCR) increased by about 42% and the effect of CKD ratio on BCR is more pronounced. The addition of fibers changed the brittle behavior of cemented sand to a more ductile one. Critical values of reinforcing parameters for maximum reinforcing effects are established.     

不同加载顺序对微型桩承载特性的影响

目前对于微型桩在竖向及水平荷载的耦合作用下的承载力方面研究较少.由于荷载、桩、土三者共同作用十分复杂,难以给出微型桩在不同荷载组合下承载力的解析解.运用ABAQUS有限元软件,分析组合荷载作用下微型桩的变形性状和破坏机理,探索了不同加载方式对于微型桩承载特性的影响.结果表明:与先施加水平荷载再施加竖向荷载相比,先施加竖...     

Influence of geosynthetic stiffness on bearing capacity of strip footings seated on thin reinforced granular layers over undrained soft clay

Thin granular fill layers are routinely used to aid the construction of shallow footings seated over undrained soft clay foundations and to increase their load capacity. The influence of time- and strain-dependent reduction in reinforcement stiffness on the bearing capacity and load-settlement response of a footing seated on a thin reinforced granular fill layer over undrained soft clay foundations is examined in this paper using finite-difference method (FDM) numerical models. The time- and strain-dependent stiffness of the reinforcement described by a two-component hyperbolic isochronous tensile load-strain model is shown to influence the bearing capacity and load-settlement response of the reinforced granular base scenario. The additional benefit of a reinforced granular layer diminishes as the time-dependent stiffness of the geosynthetic reinforcement increases. An analytical solution for the ultimate bearing capacity of strip footings seated on thin unreinforced and reinforced granular layers over undrained clay is proposed in this study. The main practical outcome from this study are tables of bearing capacity factors to be used with the analytical solution. The bearing capacity factors were back-calculated from the numerical analyses and account for the influence of rate-dependent properties of geogrid reinforcement materials and clay foundations with soft to very soft undrained shear strength.     

Case study on viability of using head-separated micropiles as foundation system for check dams

Check dams constructed in steep mountainous areas require the rationalization of the dam body and foundation system. In general, soil cement replacement or caissons are often adopted for foundations. In such cases, reducing the construction effort is a critical issue. To address this, the authors studied the viability of a new type of check dam foundation consisting of a group of micropiles whose heads are structurally disconnected from the dam body. The system, coined a head-separated micropile group (HMG) foundation, enables the saving of labor and a reduction in the cross-sectional forces applied to the micropiles. Firstly, a full-scale loading test of the HMG was conducted. Then, a finite element model was formulated and its parameters fitted to make it suitable for reproducing the experimental results. Finally, using the FE model, the performance of a typical rigidly connected micropile foundation and that of the HMG system were compared in terms of the bearing capacity and displacement of the check dam body. The results confirmed that, although its displacement was 1.25 times larger than that of the rigidly connected foundation, the HMG system led to a factor of safety of 3.5 against micropile buckling.     

Load-settlement response of shallow square footings on geogrid-reinforced sand under cyclic loading

To study the settlement and dynamic response characteristics of shallow square footings on geogrid-reinforced sand under cyclic loading, 7 sets of large scale laboratory tests are performed on a 0.5?m wide square footing resting on unreinforced and geogrid reinforced sand contained in a 3?m?×?1.6?m?×?2?m (length?×?width?×?height) steel tank. Different reinforcing schemes are considered in the tests: one layer of reinforcement at the depth of 0.3B, 0.6B and 0.9B, where B is the width of the footing; two and three layers of reinforcement at the depth and spacing both at 0.3B. In one of the two double layered reinforcing systems, the reinforcements are wrapped around at the ends. The footings are loaded to 160?kPa under static loading before applying cyclic loading. The cyclic loadings are applied at 40?kPa amplitude increments. Each loading stage lasts for 10?min at the frequency of 2?Hz, or until failure, whichever occurs first. The settlement of the footing, strain in the reinforcement and acceleration rate in the soil have been monitored during the tests. The results showed that the ultimate bearing capacity of the footings was affected by the number and layout of the reinforcements, and the increment of bearing capacity does not always increase with the number of reinforcement layers. The layout of the reinforcement layers affected the failure mechanisms of the footings. Including more layers of reinforcement could greatly reduce the dynamic response of the foundations under cyclic loading. In terms of bearing capacity improvement, including one layer of reinforcement at the depth of 0.6B was the optimum based on the test results. It is found that fracture of geogrid could occur under cyclic loading if the reinforcement is too shallow, i.e. for the cases with the first layer of reinforcement at 0.3B depth.     

微型桩-锚组合新结构抗滑特性的数值分析

针对微型桩加固滑坡时容易出现侧向变形的缺陷,笔者基于综合排桩刚架结构与拉锚式挡土结构形式优点的研发思路,提出了一种微型桩-锚组合抗滑新结构。利用FLAC^3D分析了新结构的变形与受力特性,并与传统刚架式微型桩结构进行了比较。结果表明:相比普通刚架式结构,新结构加固后的边坡位移场和桩顶水平位移明显减小,其加固效果和抗滑能力更优;斜向预应力锚索增强了微型桩的侧向刚度,结构变形曲线相对平缓;桩体弯矩、剪力分布相对均匀,发挥了结构的整体受荷能力,且峰值有所降低;除抗弯和抗剪作用外,微型桩还起到轴向作用,尤其是顺坡桩侧摩阻力作用明显;锚索拉力随边坡变形累积而逐渐增大,可以利用稳定地层的自承能力分担部分滑坡荷载;由于锚索预应力的主动施加,结构对桩后土体起到预加固作用,系梁附近桩侧土压力明显增大。研究结果可为该新结构的设计提供一定理论依据。     

Effects of Footing Size and Aspect Ratio on the Bearing Capacity of Sand Subjected to Eccentric Loading

The current practice of estimating bearing capacity usually employs the conventional bearing capacity formula originally developed for strip footings under vertical central loading. In order to account for the effect of footing shape and eccentricity and inclination of loads, correction factors are introduced in the formula, which are derived based on a number of small-scale model test observations.This paper describes research on the bearing capacity of rectangular footings on sand subjected to vertical eccentric loading. Two aspects, namely the effects of footing size and of footing shape on the bearing capacity and deformation characteristics, are focused on. A series of loading tests was conducted in a centrifuge on rectangular footings with aspect ratios from 1 to 5, at two different centrifugal accelerations. In addition, finite element analyses were performed in which factors influencing the angle of shear resistance including stress level dependency, anisotropy and coefficient of intermediate principal stress, were taken into account.It was found that the shape factor of footing apparently increased with increasing footing width. This indicates that the shape factor used in the current practice underestimates bearing capacity of footings. This was also the case for failure locus in the M/B-V (moment-vertical) load plane. Normalized failure locus for wider footings with a smaller aspect ratio is considerably larger than that reported in the literature. The stress level dependency of the angle of shear resistance appeared to be responsible for the scale effects of footings on the failure locus.     

框架微型桩结构抗滑特性的模型试验研究

 基于模型试验结果,对框架微型桩结构的抗滑特性进行研究。研究结果表明,滑坡推力作用下,框架微型桩结构中微型桩顶水平位移与荷载之间为双曲函数关系,且框架梁在荷载作用下发生倾斜,后排微型桩产生较为明显的被拔出趋势。对土压力以及桩身弯矩的监测结果表明,均布荷载作用下,作用在框架微型桩结构上的滑坡推力的分布近似为梯形,滑面及桩顶部土压力较大,桩底部土压力较小,后排微型桩受到的滑坡推力比前排桩大,推力最大值之比约为1∶0.6,滑面以下桩后土抗力的分布近似为倒三角形。将微型桩布置更为密集的微型桩框架结构具有更大的极限抗力;但是,在相同位移容许值的条件下,试验中2种结构的抗滑承载力差别不大。框架梁可以有效限制微型桩顶位移并减小桩身弯矩,但也会在微型桩顶部产生较大的弯矩,故实际工程中可以采取增大截面尺寸、增大框架梁埋深或增设套管等措施提高微型桩截面的抗弯刚度,从而提高框架微型桩结构的整体抗滑性能。     

基于极限抗力分析的微型桩群加固土质边坡设计方法

微型桩是一种常用边坡快速加固手段,多大面积成群布置。基于梁柱理论和弹塑性地基系数法中的P–y曲线法建立了微型桩加固边坡的水平抗力分析模型,提出了确定微型桩截面极限弯矩以及最大抗剪力的迭代分析方法;采用有限差分法推导了轴向和横向复合外力作用下微型桩内力和变位的计算公式;以最大限度发挥微型桩群横向抗力为目标,重点研究了微型桩群中微型桩横向间距和纵向间距的确定方法。在此基础上,形成了采用微型桩群加固土质边坡的设计方法,内容主要包括微型桩群布设位置的选取、微型桩选型、桩长选取、微型桩群断面设计、微型桩群平面设计以及顶梁设计等。将该方法应用于某公路路堤边坡病害加固工程设计中,监测资料表明,坡体位移在微型桩群的作用下逐渐趋于收敛,坡体病害得到了根治,从而验证了设计方法的有效性。     

Behavior of closely spaced square and circular footings on reinforced sand

This paper describes an experimental investigation conducted to evaluate the ultimate bearing capacity, the settlement and the tilt of two types closely spaced footings, one having square shapes and the other having circular shapes, on unreinforced and reinforced soil. To decrease the objectionable influence of interference on the performance of the closely spaced footings, the foundation soil is reinforced by geogrid layers. The results of this reinforcement show both positive and negative effects, namely, a positive effect because there is a considerable increase in the ultimate bearing capacity, and a negative effect because there is an increase in settlement and tilt. Regarding the experimental results, the negative effect of interference can be decreased considerably through the use of soil reinforcements. The ultimate bearing capacity of the interfering footings increased by about 25–40%, whereas the settlement of the interfering footings at the ultimate load increased in the range of 60–100%. However, the closely spaced footings tilted by approximately 45% and 75% for reinforced sand with one and two layers of geogrid, respectively.     

Analytical modeling of geogrid reinforced soil foundation

This paper aims at developing analytical solutions for estimating the ultimate bearing capacity of geogrid reinforced soil foundations (RSF) for both sand and silty clay soils. Failure mechanisms for reinforced soil foundations are proposed based on the literature review and the results of experimental study on model footing tests conducted by the authors. New bearing capacity formulas that incorporate the contribution of reinforcements to the increase in bearing capacity are then developed for both reinforced sand and silty clay soil foundations based on the proposed failure mechanisms. The predicted bearing capacity values are compared with the results of laboratory model tests on reinforced sand and silty clay soil. The proposed analytical solutions were also verified by the results of large-scale model tests conducted by the authors for reinforced silty clay and the data reported in the literature. The predicted bearing capacity values from analytical solutions are in good agreement with the test results.     

Bearing capacity of square footings on geosynthetic reinforced sand

The results from laboratory model tests and numerical simulations on square footings resting on sand are presented. Bearing capacity of footings on geosynthetic reinforced sand is evaluated and the effect of various reinforcement parameters like the type and tensile strength of geosynthetic material, amount of reinforcement, layout and configuration of geosynthetic layers below the footing on the bearing capacity improvement of the footings is studied through systematic model studies. A steel tank of size 900 × 900 × 600 mm is used for conducting model tests. Four types of grids, namely strong biaxial geogrid, weak biaxial geogrid, uniaxial geogrid and a geonet, each with different tensile strength, are used in the tests. Geosynthetic reinforcement is provided in the form of planar layers, varying the depth of reinforced zone below the footing, number of geosynthetic layers within the reinforced zone and the width of geosynthetic layers in different tests. Influence of all these parameters on the bearing capacity improvement of square footing and its settlement is studied by comparing with the test on unreinforced sand. Results show that the effective depth of reinforcement is twice the width of the footing and optimum spacing of geosynthetic layers is half the width of the footing. It is observed that the layout and configuration of reinforcement play a vital role in bearing capacity improvement rather than the tensile strength of the geosynthetic material. Experimental observations are supported by the findings from numerical analyses.     

Seismic Bearing Capacity of Piles in Liquefiable Soils

An investigation into the base capacity of piles in passing through loose, liquefiable sand and founded in underlying dense sand is presented based on the results of a series of dynamic centrifuge tests on instrumented model pile groups. Excess pore pressures equal in magnitude to the initial effective vertical stress were observed to be generated in the bearing layer of dense sand at both shallow (15 m) and deep (26 m) depths. This induced a dramatic reduction in base capacity and consequently, large settlements of the piles by as much as ~5D₀. A spherical cavity expansion solution for base capacity was validated against measured values showing good agreement, provided that excess pore pressure and dynamic shear stiffness in the bearing layer are known. A simple closed-form relationship, applicable to end-bearing piles, between the degree of liquefaction and the initial pile static safety factor was then developed against plunging failure at the pile base which can be used in design.