Simplified speciation and atmospheric volatile organic compound emission rates from non-aerosol personal care products

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from personal care products (PCPs) can affect indoor air quality and outdoor air quality when ventilated. In this paper, we determine a set of simplified VOC species profiles and emission rates for a range of non-aerosol PCPs. These have been constructed from individual vapor analysis from 36 products available in the UK, using equilibrium headspace analysis with selected-ion flow-tube mass spectrometry (SIFT-MS). A simplified speciation profile is created based on the observations, comprising four alcohols, two cyclic volatile siloxanes, and monoterpenes (grouped as limonene). Estimates are made for individual unit-of-activity VOC emissions for dose-usage of shampoos, shower gel, conditioner, liquid foundation, and moisturizer. We use these values as inputs to the INdoor air Detailed Chemical Model (INDCM) and compare results against real-world case-study experimental data. Activity-based emissions are then scaled based on plausible usage patterns to estimate the potential scale of annual per-person emissions for each product type (eg, 2 g limonene person⁻¹ yr⁻¹ from shower gels). Annual emissions from non-aerosol PCPs for the UK are then calculated (decamethylcyclopentasiloxane 0.25 ktonne yr⁻¹ and limonene 0.15 ktonne yr⁻¹) and these compared with the UK National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory estimates for non-aerosol cosmetics and toiletries.     

Occupational exposure and health risks of volatile organic compounds of hotel housekeepers: Field measurements of exposure and health risks

Hotel housekeepers represent a large, low-income, predominantly minority, and high-risk workforce. Little is known about their exposure to chemicals, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This study evaluates VOC exposures of housekeepers, sources and factors affecting VOC levels, and provides preliminary estimates of VOC-related health risks. We utilized indoor and personal sampling at two hotels, assessed ventilation, and characterized the VOC composition of cleaning agents. Personal sampling of hotel staff showed a total target VOC concentration of 57 ± 36 µg/m³ (mean ± SD), about twice that of indoor samples. VOCs of greatest health significance included chloroform and formaldehyde. Several workers had exposure to alkanes that could cause non-cancer effects. VOC levels were negatively correlated with estimated air change rates. The composition and concentrations of the tested products and air samples helped identify possible emission sources, which included building sources (for formaldehyde), disinfection by-products in the laundry room, and cleaning products. VOC levels and the derived health risks in this study were at the lower range found in the US buildings. The excess lifetime cancer risk (average of 4.1 × 10⁻⁵) still indicates a need to lower exposure by reducing or removing toxic constituents, especially formaldehyde, or by increasing ventilation rates.     

Factors controlling volatile organic compounds in dwellings in Melbourne,Australia

This study characterized indoor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and investigated the effects of the dwelling characteristics, building materials, occupant activities, and environmental conditions on indoor VOC concentrations in 40 dwellings located in Melbourne, Australia, in 2008 and 2009. A total of 97 VOCs were identified. Nine VOCs, n‐butane, 2‐methylbutane, toluene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, d‐limonene, ethanol, 2‐propanol, and acetic acid, accounted for 68% of the sum of all VOCs. The median indoor concentrations of all VOCs were greater than those measured outdoors. The occupant density was positively associated with indoor VOC concentrations via occupant activities, including respiration and combustion. Terpenes were associated with the use of household cleaning and laundry products. A petroleum‐like indoor VOC signature of alkanes and aromatics was associated with the proximity of major roads. The indoor VOC concentrations were negatively correlated (P < 0.05) with ventilation. Levels of VOCs in these Australian dwellings were lower than those from previous studies in North America and Europe, probably due to a combination of an ongoing temporal decrease in indoor VOC concentrations and the leakier nature of Australian dwellings.     

Biological and environmental exposure monitoring of volatile organic compounds among nail technicians in the Greater Boston area

Nail technicians are exposed to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from nail products, but no studies have previously measured VOC biomarkers for these workers. This study of 10 nail technicians aimed to identify VOCs in nail salons and explore relationships between air concentrations and biomarkers. Personal and area air samples were collected using thermal desorption tubes during a work shift and analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for 71 VOCs. Whole blood samples were collected pre‐shift and post‐shift, and analyzed using GC/MS for 43 VOCs. Ventilation rates were determined using continuous CO₂ measurements. Predominant air VOC levels were ethyl methacrylate (median 240 µg/m³), methyl methacrylate (median 205 µg/m³), toluene (median 100 µg/m³), and ethyl acetate (median 639 µg/m³). Blood levels were significantly higher post‐shift than pre‐shift for toluene (median pre‐shift 0.158 µg/L and post‐shift 0.360 µg/L) and ethyl acetate (median pre‐shift <0.158 µg/L and post‐shift 0.510 µg/L); methacrylates were not measured in blood because of their instability. Based on VOCs measured in these seven nail salons, we estimated that emissions from Greater Boston area nail salons may contribute to ambient VOCs. Ventilation rates did not always meet the ASHRAE guideline for nail salons. There is a need for changes in nail product formulation and better ventilation to reduce VOC occupational exposures.     

Cabin air quality on non-smoking commercial flights: A review of published data on airborne pollutants

We reviewed 47 documents published 1967–2019 that reported measurements of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on commercial aircraft. We compared the measurements with the air quality standards and guidelines for aircraft cabins and in some cases buildings. Average levels of VOCs for which limits exist were lower than the permissible levels except for benzene with average concentration at 5.9 ± 5.5 μg/m³. Toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, limonene, nonanal, hexanal, decanal, octanal, acetic acid, acetone, ethanol, butanal, acrolein, isoprene and menthol were the most frequently measured compounds. The concentrations of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) and other contaminants did not exceed standards and guidelines in buildings except for the average NO₂ concentration at 12 ppb. Although the focus was on VOCs, we also retrieved the data on other parameters characterizing cabin environment. Ozone concentration averaged 38 ppb below the upper limit recommended for aircraft. The outdoor air supply rate ranged from 1.7 to 39.5 L/s per person and averaged 6.0 ± 0.8 L/s/p (median 5.8 L/s/p), higher than the minimum level recommended for commercial aircraft. Carbon dioxide concentration averaged 1315 ± 232 ppm, lower than what is permitted in aircraft and close to what is permitted in buildings. Measured temperatures averaged 23.5 ± 0.8°C and were generally within the ranges recommended for avoiding thermal discomfort. Relative humidity averaged 16% ± 5%, lower than what is recommended in buildings.     

Levels and sources of volatile organic compounds in homes of children with asthma

Many volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are classified as known or possible carcinogens, irritants, and toxicants, and VOC exposure has been associated with the onset and exacerbation of asthma. This study characterizes VOC levels in 126 homes of children with asthma in Detroit, Michigan, USA. The total target VOC concentration ranged from 14 to 2274 μg/m³ (mean = 150 μg/m³; median = 91 μg/m³); 56 VOCs were quantified; and d‐limonene, toluene, p, m‐xylene, and ethyl acetate had the highest concentrations. Based on the potential for adverse health effects, priority VOCs included naphthalene, benzene, 1,4‐dichlorobenzene, isopropylbenzene, ethylbenzene, styrene, chloroform, 1,2‐dichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, and trichloroethylene. Concentrations varied mostly due to between‐residence and seasonal variation. Identified emission sources included cigarette smoking, solvent‐related emissions, renovations, household products, and pesticides. The effect of nearby traffic on indoor VOC levels was not distinguished. While concentrations in the Detroit homes were lower than levels found in other North American studies, many homes had elevated VOC levels, including compounds that are known health hazards. Thus, the identification and control of VOC sources are important and prudent, especially for vulnerable individuals. Actions and policies to reduce VOC exposures, for example, sales restrictions, improved product labeling, and consumer education, are recommended.     

Estimation of biogenic volatile organic compounds emissions in subtropical island--Taiwan

Elevated tropospheric ozone is harmful to human health and plants. It is formed through the photochemical reactions involving volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NO(x)). The elevated ozone episodes occur mainly in summer months in the United States, while the high-ozone episodes frequently occur during the fall in Taiwan. The unique landscape of Taiwan produces tremendous amounts of biogenic VOCs in the mountain regions that are adjacent to concentrated urban areas. The urban areas, in turn, generate prodigious amounts of anthropogenic emissions. Biogenic VOC emissions have direct influence on tropospheric ozone formation. To explore the air quality problems in Taiwan, this study attempts to develop a biogenic VOC emission model suitable for air quality applications in Taiwan. The emission model is based on the Biogenic Emissions Inventory System Version 2 and coupled with a detailed Taiwan land use database. The 1999 total Taiwan biogenic VOC emissions were estimated at 214,000 metric tons. The emissions of isoprene, monoterpenes, and other VOCs were about 37.2%, 30.4%, and 32.4% of total biogenic VOC emissions, respectively. The annual total biogenic VOC emission per unit area was more than two times the value of that in any European country, implying that detailed emissions estimates in any size of region will benefit the global biogenic emission inventories.     

Heterogeneous reactions of ozone and D-limonene on activated carbon

If released in significant amounts, products formed by reactions between ozone (O3) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) sorbed on activated carbon (AC) filters could degrade indoor air quality (IAQ). Heterogeneous reactions were investigated in laboratory experiments aimed at characterizing reaction products. Effluent air of AC loaded with limonene and exposed to O3 (5.8 ppm) yielded unreacted limonene (501+/-197 microg/m3), low levels of 4-acetyl-1-methylcyclohexene (AMCH) (20+/-2 microg/m3), and limonene oxides (25+/-7 microg/m3). Most of the O3-limonene products remained on the AC, and most (58%) of the limonene remained unreacted on the AC after exposure to a stoichiometric excess of O3 for 48 h. Thus, in addition to known homogenous reactions, O3-limonene reactions occur heterogeneously on AC but to a much lesser extent. However, the fate of 95% of the depleted limonene was not determined; much of the missing portion was attributed to desorption from the AC, but the formation of other secondary indoor air pollutants is possible. VOC-loaded AC air filters exposed to O3 seem unlikely, however, to constitute a significant emission source of reaction products. More studies are necessary to investigate other pollutants, effects of environmental conditions, and VOC releases from AC that may be enhanced by O3 exposure. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: Reactions between ozone and certain volatile organic compounds such as limonene (a common ingredient of many consumer products) occurring on the surface of ventilation filters could impact indoor air quality if products are released in significant amounts. This study suggests that although very small amounts of limonene adsorbed on a filter will react with O3, ventilation filters are not likely to be significant sources of ozone oxidation products. More studies are needed to investigate whether ozone exposure enhances desorption of pollutants from ventilation filters and to measure the formation of formaldehyde and other products that are not easily retained by charcoal filters.     

Investigation of volatile organic compounds in office buildings in Bangkok,Thailand: Concentrations,sources, and occupant symptoms

To conserve energy, office buildings with air-conditioning systems in Thailand are operated with a tight thermal envelope. This leads to low fresh-air ventilation rates and is thought to be partly responsible for the sick building syndrome symptoms reported by occupants. The objectives of this study are to measure concentrations and to determine sources of 13 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in office buildings with air-conditioning systems in the business area of Bangkok. Indoor and outdoor air samples from 17 buildings were collected on Tenax-TA^™ sorbent tubes and analyzed for individual VOCs by thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (TD–GC/MS). Building ventilation was measured with a constant injection technique using hexafluorobenzene as a tracer gas. The results show that the VOC concentrations varied significantly among the studied buildings. The two most dominant VOCs were toluene and limonene with average concentrations of 110 and 60.5 μg m⁻³, respectively. A Wilcoxon sum rank test indicated that the indoor concentrations of aromatic compounds and limonene were statistically higher than outdoor concentrations at the 0.05 level, while the indoor concentrations of chlorinated compounds were not. Indoor emission factors of toluene and limonene were found to be highest with the average values of 80.9 and 18.9 μg m⁻² h⁻¹, respectively. Principal component analysis was applied to the emission factors of 13 VOCs, producing three components based on source similarities. Furthermore, a questionnaire survey investigation and field measurements of building air exchange pointed to indoor air complaints related to inadequate ventilation.     

Air exchange rates and migration of VOCs in basements and residences

Basements can influence indoor air quality by affecting air exchange rates (AERs) and by the presence of emission sources of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other pollutants. We characterized VOC levels, AERs, and interzonal flows between basements and occupied spaces in 74 residences in Detroit, Michigan. Flows were measured using a steady‐state multitracer system, and 7‐day VOC measurements were collected using passive samplers in both living areas and basements. A walk‐through survey/inspection was conducted in each residence. AERs in residences and basements averaged 0.51 and 1.52/h, respectively, and had strong and opposite seasonal trends, for example, AERs were highest in residences during the summer, and highest in basements during the winter. Airflows from basements to occupied spaces also varied seasonally. VOC concentration distributions were right‐skewed, for example, 90th percentile benzene, toluene, naphthalene, and limonene concentrations were 4.0, 19.1, 20.3, and 51.0 μg/m³, respectively; maximum concentrations were 54, 888, 1117, and 134 μg/m³. Identified VOC sources in basements included solvents, household cleaners, air fresheners, smoking, and gasoline‐powered equipment. The number and type of potential VOC sources found in basements are significant and problematic, and may warrant advisories regarding the storage and use of potentially strong VOCs sources in basements.     

The effects of paints and moisture content on the indoor air emissions from pinewood (Pinus sylvestris) boards

The emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from building materials may significantly contribute to indoor air pollution, and VOCs have been associated with odor annoyance and adverse health effects. Wood materials together with coatings are commonly used indoors for furniture and large surfaces such as walls, floors, and ceilings. This leads to high surface-to-volume ratios, and therefore, these materials may participate remarkably to the VOC levels of indoor environment. We studied emissions of VOCs and carbonyl compounds from pinewood (Pinus sylvestris) boards of 10% and 16% moisture contents (MC) with three paints using small-scale test chambers (27 L). The emissions from uncoated pinewood and paints (on a glass substrate) were tested as references. The 28-day experiment showed that the VOC emissions from uncoated pinewood were lower from sample with 16% MC. Painted pinewood samples showed lower emissions compared to paints on glass substrate. Additionally, paints on 16% MC pinewood exhibited lower emissions than on drier 10% MC wood. The emissions from painted pinewood samples were dominated by paint-based compounds, but the share of wood-based compounds increased over time. However, we noticed differences between the paints, and wood-based emissions were clearly higher with the most permeable paint.     

Volatile organic compounds from building products—Results from six round robin tests with emission test chambers conducted between 2008 and 2018

Emission testing of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from materials and products is commonly based on emission test chamber measurements. To ensure the comparability of results from different testing laboratories, their measurement performance must be verified. For this purpose, Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) organizes an international proficiency test (round robin test, RRT) every two years using well-characterized test materials (one sealant, one furniture board, and four times a lacquer) with defined VOC emissions. The materials fulfilled the requirements of homogeneity, reproducibility, and stability. Altogether, 36 VOCs were included of which 33 gave test chamber air concentrations between 13 and 83 µg/m³. This is the typical concentration range to be expected and to be quantified when performing chamber tests. Three compounds had higher concentrations between 326 and 1105 µg/m³. In this paper, the relative standard deviations (RSD) of BAM round robin tests since 2008 are compared and the improvement of the comparability of the emission chamber testing is shown by the decrease of the mean RSD down to 28% in 2018. In contrast, the first large European interlaboratory comparison in 1999 showed a mean RSD of 51%.     

Ozone reaction with clothing and its initiated VOC emissions in an environmental chamber

Human health is adversely affected by ozone and the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced from its reactions in the indoor environment. Hence, it is important to characterize the ozone‐initiated reactive chemistry under indoor conditions and study the influence of different factors on these reactions. This investigation studied the ozone reactions with clothing through a series of experiments conducted in an environmental chamber under various conditions. The study found that the ozone reactions with a soiled (human‐worn) T‐shirt consumed ozone and generated VOCs. The ozone removal rate and deposition velocity for the T‐shirt increased with the increasing soiling level and air change rate, decreased at high ozone concentrations, and were relatively unaffected by the humidity. The deposition velocity for the soiled T‐shirt ranged from 0.15 to 0.29 cm/s. The ozone‐initiated VOC emissions included C6–C10 straight‐chain saturated aldehydes, acetone, and 4‐OPA (4‐oxopentanal). The VOC emissions were generally higher at higher ozone, humidity, soiling of T‐shirt, and air change rate. The total molar yield was approximately 0.5 in most cases, which means that for every two moles of ozone removed by the T‐shirt surface, one mole of VOCs was produced.     

Volatile organic compounds in fourteen U.S. retail stores

Retail buildings have a potential for both short‐term (customer) and long‐term (occupational) exposure to indoor pollutants. However, little is known about volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations in the retail sector and influencing factors, such as ventilation, in‐store activities, and store type. We measured VOC concentrations and ventilation rates in 14 retail stores in Texas and Pennsylvania. With the exception of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, VOCs were present in retail stores at concentrations well below health guidelines. Indoor formaldehyde concentrations ranged from 4.6 ppb to 67 ppb. The two mid‐sized grocery stores in the sample had the highest levels of ethanol and acetaldehyde, with concentrations up to 2.6 ppm and 92 ppb, respectively, possibly due to the preparation of dough and baking activities. Indoor‐to‐outdoor concentration ratios indicated that indoor sources were the main contributors to indoor VOC concentrations for the majority of compounds. There was no strong correlation between ventilation and VOC concentrations across all stores. However, increasing the air exchange rates at two stores led to lower indoor VOC concentrations, suggesting that ventilation can be used to reduce concentrations for some specific stores.     

Influencing factors of carbonyl compounds and other VOCs in commercial airliner cabins: On-board investigation of 56 flights

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as a non-negligible aircraft cabin air quality (CAQ) factor influence the health and comfort of passengers and crew members. On-board measurements of carbonyls (short-chain (C₁-C₆)) and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs, long-chain (C₆-C₁₆)) with a total of 350 samples were conducted in 56 commercial airliner cabins covering 8 aircraft models in this study. The mean concentration for each individual carbonyl compound was between 0.3 and 8.3 μg/m³ (except for acrolein & acetone, average = 20.7 μg/m³) similar to the mean concentrations of other highly detected VOCs (long-chain (C₆-C₁₆), 97% of which ranged in 0–10 μg/m³) in aircraft cabins. Formaldehyde concentrations in flights were significantly lower than in residential buildings, where construction materials are known formaldehyde sources. Acetone is a VOC emitted by humans, and its concentration in flights was similar to that in other high-occupant density transportation vehicles. The variation of VOC concentrations in different flight phases of long-haul flights was the same as that of CO₂ concentration except for the meal phase, which indicates the importance of cabin ventilation in diluting the gaseous contaminants, while the sustained and slow growth of the VOC concentrations during the cruising phase in short-haul flights indicated that the ventilation could not adequately dilute the emission of VOCs. For the different categories of VOCs, the mean concentration during the cruising phase of benzene series, aldehydes, alkanes, other VOCs (detection rate > 50%), and carbonyls in long-haul flights was 44.2 µg/m³, 17.9 µg/m³, 18.6 µg/m³, 31.5 µg/m³, and 20.4 µg/m³ lower than those in short-haul flights, respectively. Carbonyls and d-limonene showed a significant correlation with meal service (p < 0.05). Unlike the newly decorated rooms or new vehicles, the inner materials were not the major emission sources in aircraft cabins. Practical Implications.

• The on-board measurements of 56 flights enrich the VOC database of cabin environment, especially for carbonyls. The literature review of carbonyls in the past 20 years contributes to the understanding the current status of cabin air quality (CAQ).
• The analysis of VOC concentration variation for different flight phases, flight duration, and aircraft age lays a foundation for exploring effective control methods, including ventilation and purification for cabin VOC pollution.
• The enriched VOC data is helpful to explore the key VOCs of aircraft cabin environment and to evaluate the acute/chronic health exposure risk of pollutants for passengers and crew members.

     

Subjective Indoor Air Quality in Schools – The Influence of High Room Temperature,Carpeting, Fleecy Wall Materials and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)

There is a growing concern about indoor air quality (IAQ) in schools. We have studied relations between subjective indoor air quality (SIAQ) and measured IAQ among school personnel (N = 97) in six mid-Swedish primary schools. Information on SIAQ and the psychosocial work environment was measured by a self-administered questionnaire, using analogue rating scales. Indoor exposures were quantified by hygienic measurements. Perception of high room temperature was related to a poor climate of cooperation, fleecy wall materials, and the concentration of volatile organic compounds (VOC), including xylene, limonene, and butanols. Perception of air dry-ness was related to atopy, work stress, poor climate of cooperation, high room temperature, low air humidity, and high VOC concentration, including, limonene, and n-alkanes. Perception of dusty air was related to work stress, the role of schoolteacher, and exposure to 2-ethyl-1-hexanol. No relations were found between SIAQ and CO2, building age, or respirable dust. To achieve a good SIAQ, room temperature should be kept at a maximum of 22°C, and exposure to VOCs and fleecy materials should be minimized. Finally, a sound psychosocial work climate is essential for the perception of a good physical indoor climate.     

Volatile organic pollutants in new and established buildings in Melbourne, Australia

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) within new and established buildings have been determined and factors significant to their presence have been identified. In established dwellings, total volatile organic compound (TVOC) concentrations were low, but were approximately four times higher than in outdoor air, showing a dominant effect of indoor sources. The presence of attached garages, site contamination and 'faulty' wool carpet were associated with higher indoor pollution. In three dwellings, unidentified sources of benzene were indicated. Much higher VOC concentrations were observed in new or renovated buildings, persisting above "baseline" levels for several weeks, concentration decay rate correlating with VOC molecular volume, indicating emissions were limited by material diffusion processes. VOC and formaldehyde emission decays in a new dwelling occurred by a double-exponential source model. This shows that persistent low levels of volatile organic pollutants in established dwellings can occur due to long-term emissions from building materials.     

Emissions of VOCs,SVOCs, and mold during the construction process: Contribution to indoor air quality and future occupants’ exposure

Building materials and human activities are important sources of contamination indoors, but little information is available regarding contamination during construction process which could persist during the whole life of buildings. In this study, six construction stages on two construction sites were investigated regarding the emissions of 43 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 46 semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), and the presence of 4 genera of mold. Results show that the future indoor air quality does not only depend on the emissions of each building product but that it is also closely related to the whole implementation process. Mold spore measurements can reach 1400 CFU/m³, which is particularly high compared with the concentrations usually measured in indoor environments. Relatively low concentrations of VOCs were observed, in relation to the use of low emissive materials. Among SVOCs analyzed, some phthalates, permethrin, and hydrocarbons were found in significant concentrations upon the delivery of building as well as triclosan, suspected to be endocrine disruptor, and yet prohibited in the treatment of materials and construction since 2014. As some regulations exist for VOC emissions, it is necessary to implement them for SVOCs due to their toxicity.