Mechanism of improvement of formability in pulsating hydroforming of tubes

The mechanism of improvement of formability by the oscillation of internal pressure in a pulsating hydroforming process of tubes was examined. Free bulging hydroforming experiments of mild steel tubes under oscillating and constant inner pressures were performed. For a high constant pressure, a round bulge with local thinning was observed, whereas wrinkling occurred for a low constant pressure. The occurrence of these defects was prevented by oscillating the internal pressure in the pulsating hydroforming. In the pulsating hydroforming, a uniform expansion in the bulging region was obtained, and thus the formability was improved by preventing the local thinning. It was found from an observation of deformation behaviour, using a video camera, that the tube is uniformly expanded by repeating the appearance and disappearance of small wrinkling. The cause of the uniform expansion for the pulsating hydroforming was also interpreted from the variation of stress components. In addition, a similar deference in deformation behaviour between the oscillating and constant inner pressures was also obtained in finite element simulation.     

关键参数对薄壁筒形件充液成形的影响规律

为了研究初始反胀高度(IRBH)、反胀压力(IRBP)和液室压力加载路径3个工艺参数对板料充液成形的影响规律,以不锈钢321材料为研究对象,进行板材充液成形工艺过程的分析。首先,利用数值模拟的方法,在有初始反胀(IRB)的充液成形基础上,研究了初始反胀高度与初始反胀压力的组合形式以及液室压力加载路径对制件成形的影响规律,然后分别研究了有无初始反胀的充液成形过程。最后,通过实验的方法进行验证。结果表明:当初始反胀高度为3.75 mm、初始反胀压力为2 MPa时,充液结束时板料的最大减薄率为4.803%,在所有结果中最小;无初始反胀时,零件壁厚最大减薄率为5%;当在充液拉深后期继续加大液室压力时,板料底部发生波动,出现二次变形,与此同时,板料最大减薄率增大。从而验证了合适的初始反胀高度和反胀压力可以减小制件壁厚的最大减薄率,液室压力加载路径不同,零件的壁厚分布也不同。     

Experimental Observations of Quasi-Static-Dynamic Formability in Biaxially Strained AA5052-O

To establish the efficacy of electromagnetically assisted sheet metal stamping (EMAS), a series of combined hydraulic bulging and electromagnetic forming (EMF) experiments are presented to evaluate the biaxial quasi-static-dynamic formability of an aluminum alloy (AA5052-O) sheet material. Data on formability are plotted in principal strain space and show an enhanced biaxial formability beyond the corresponding experimental results from conventional forming limit diagram. The plastic strains produced by the combined process are a little larger than or at least similar with those obtained in the fully dynamic EMF process. In addition, the biaxial forming limits of aluminum sheets undergoing both very low and high quasi-static prestraining are almost similar in quasi-static-dynamic bulging process. Limit formability seems to depend largely on the high-velocity loading condition as dictated by EMF. It appears that in quasi-static-dynamic forming, quasi-static loading is not of primary importance to the material’s formability. Based on these observations, one may be able to develop forming operations that take advantage of this formability improvement of quasi-static-dynamic deformation. Also, this could enable the use of a quasi-static preform fairly close to the quasi-static material limits for the design of an EMAS process.     

复杂薄壁微小截面环形件的充液成形技术研究

针对具有微小特征尺寸的复杂薄壁环形零件提出了轴向进给与充液胀形相结合的多级充液成形工艺方法.以通用有限元软件ABAQUS为平台建立数值模拟模型,基于建立的模型对复杂环形零件的成形工艺进行模拟,分析了液室压力加载曲线、模具的摩擦系数、开模间距等工艺条件对成形的影响,得出开模间距和液室压力是影响成形结果的主要因素,最终给出...     

Experimental Observations of 5A02 Aluminum Alloy in Electromagnetically Assisted Tube Hydroforming

To establish the efficiency of electromagnetically assisted tube hydroforming, a typical experimental test for hydroforming, i.e., hydrobulging, was carried out on a 5A02 tube blank by using a combined quasi-static axial feeding and pulsed electromagnetic hydrobulging method. Data on the formability of an aluminum alloy 5A02 tube employing this combined loading method is compared with data for traditional quasi-static tests. The results show that the formability of aluminum alloy undergoing a quasi-static–dynamic process is dramatically increased beyond that exhibited in quasi-static or fully dynamic tests. The ultimate expansion ratio of an aluminum alloy tube undergoing a pulsed electromagnetic hydrobulging process is greatly increased beyond that exhibited in quasi-static hydrobulging tests. Both the expansion ratio and the effective strain exhibited in electromagnetically assisted tube hydroforming tests are about four and two times of that in quasi-static and fully dynamic hydrobulging tests, respectively. The forming limits of aluminum samples with both low and high prestrain levels are almost similar in the electromagnetically assisted tube hydroforming process, which makes it possible to stretch the aluminum alloy to a higher quasi-static prestrain level without weakening its total quasi-static–dynamic formability.     

Development of Accurate Constitutive Models for Simulation of Superplastic Forming

Superplastic forming (SPF) has been considered a process for improving the formability of aluminum alloys for the production of automotive body panels. In order to accurately simulate the SPF process, elevated temperature, uniaxial tension tests are used to develop the material flow model. Due to the high temperature and large degree of deformation in these tests, strain is typically calculated using crosshead displacement rather than with an extensometer. This approach requires the assumption of a constant material volume in the gage section to calculate the uniform strain. It has been observed that a significant amount of material flows from the grips into the gage section during testing which results in inaccuracies in the material model. This article presents a numerical tool that accounts for material flow from the grips and produces a more accurate constitutive equation. Experimental and numerical validations of the results of the developed tool are presented. This article was presented at Materials Science & Technology 2006, Innovations in Metal Forming symposium held in Cincinnati, OH, October 15-19, 2006.     

ZK60镁合金板材成形性能试验

对ZK60镁合金板材在室温和高温条件下进行杯突试验。试验结果表明,室温下ZK60镁合金板材杯突值IE=4.5mm,在370℃条件下材料的杯突值IE=16.5mm,胀形高度增加了266.7%;ZK60镁合金板材高温胀形的破裂,是由冲头附近板材沿切向方向的裂纹扩展和沿厚度方向缩颈所产生的断裂造成。     

Deformation Behavior of a Thin-Walled Tube in Hydroforming with Radial Crushing Under Pulsating Hydraulic Pressure

Loading path plays a dominant role in tube hydroforming (THF), and the pulsating loading path has been reported capable of improving the formability of a tube in hydrobulging with axial feeding. As a new THF process, the tube hydroforming with radial crushing (THFRC) is receiving increasing attention; however, knowledge on the process still remains insufficient to extend its application to various other fields. In this study, the experiments of THFRC under both the pulsating and the linear hydraulic pressures were carried out to investigate the deformation behavior. The influences of the amplitude and the frequency of the pulsating hydraulic pressure on the shape precision, wall thickness, and the microstructures of the deformed parts were analyzed. Subsequently, metallographic examinations of the deformed specimens were conducted in an attempt to clarify the relationship between the microstructural evolution and deformation behavior. The mechanism of formability improvement in THFRC by the pulsating hydraulic pressure was explored from the perspective of microstructure. Compared with the linear hydraulic pressure, the pulsating hydraulic pressure could generate a higher shape precision, a more uniform wall thickness, as well as less martensites, and larger grain. The microstructural evolution induced by the pulsating loading path is supposed to contribute to the formability improvement of SUS304 stainless steel tubes.     

Theoretical study on hydro-mechanical deep drawing process of bimetallic sheets and experimental observations

The application of hydroforming process on aluminum-steel laminated sheets includes advantages of both process and material to improve formability of lightweight low formable aluminum sheets. In this research, analytical models were developed to investigate stress analysis and instability condition in hydro-mechanical deep drawing (HMDD) of cylindrical AL/St cups. Based on these models, several parametric study were performed regarding to the effect of thickness of layers, setting condition of layers, drawing ratio and frictional condition on key parameter of critical fluid pressure of process. The experimental works were performed on Aluminum (1050-H0)/Carbon steel (St13) two-layer sheets for verification of analytical results and the prediction of actual working pressure window. It was demonstrated that the fluid pressure window for a successful part forming could be rapidly predicted with a reasonable accuracy by the analytic model compared to lengthy and costly FEA or experimental trial and error.     

5083铝合金三通内高压成形模拟研究

为探讨5083铝合金等径正三通的内高压成形规律,采用有限元模拟首先分析了成形过程的变形情况,其次研究了壁厚以及应力、应变的分布,用成形时应力、应变的变化解释了形成厚度分布趋势的原因。模拟结果表明,支管顶部壁厚减薄,主管以及与冲头接触处明显增厚。在内高压成形的三通铝合金管在几何尺寸及壁厚分布方面,实验结果与有限元模拟值基本吻合。     

Combined tube and double sheet hydroforming for the manufacturing of complex parts

Modern lightweight construction, especially in the automotive industry, requires more and more complex components, which can be manufactured in one process step using the hydroforming technology. The combination of the tube and double sheet hydroforming is a new forming process, where a tube and two blanks are formed simultaneously in a die cavity, combining the advantages of both hydroforming variants. This paper deals with the fundamental considerations and investigations related to connection between tube and double sheet. The finite element analysis and laboratory trials were used in order to design the shape of the die cavity and to avoid wrinkles, material tearing and the collapse of the tube section during forming. The paper will also illustrate an analytical model for the prediction of the edge shape in the constrained bulging of a rectangular cup together with several technical solutions, which enabled a complete forming of the investigated part. Finally, the definition of a hydroforming material factor based on the analytical model of the hydraulic bulging process enables the right choice of sheets with different material strength and thickness for the hydroforming of hybrid components.     

粘性介质反向压力胀形对5A02铝合金板成形性的影响

粘性介质压力成形(ViscousPressureForming,VPF)是一种适合于难变形材料板金零件制造的软模成形工艺。采用粘性介质胀形实验研究了反向压力对5A02铝合金板料成形性能的影响,结果表明在一定范围内的反向压力有利于抑制板料的平面各向异性,而在更高的反向压力条件下板料具有更好的成形性。     

Multi-layer sheet hydroforming: Experimental and numerical investigation into the very thin layer in the middle

Sheet hydroforming has gained increasing interest in the automotive and aerospace industries because of its many advantages such as higher forming limitation, good quality of the formed parts and complicated parts can be formed, etc. The main advantage is that the uniform pressure can be transferred to everywhere at the same time. Based on the hydromechanical deep drawing (HDD) with uniform pressure onto the blank, the multi-sheet hydroforming with the very thin middle layer is investigated. Some features of the formed internal, external and middle layers including high drawing ratio, wall thickness distributions, free wrinkling and fracture, etc., are discussed in details. The process parameters’ effect on the forming process and the ways to improve the sheets formability are discussed both for in experiment and simulation. The results from a simulation were in reasonable agreement with those from an experiment.     

DC04钢板胀形-渐进复合成形锥形件成形能力的实验研究

为了提高渐进成形过程中板料的成形极限和加工效率,提出了胀形-渐进成形的复合成形方法,通过胀形-渐进成形复合成形锥形件实验,研究了DC04钢板胀形-渐进成形复合成形锥形件和纯渐进成形锥形件的成形极限角和应变变化以及壁厚分布规律。结果表明:预成形高度为h=15 mm和h=25 mm时,复合成形零件的成形极限角分别为α极=66°和α极=69°;采用胀形-渐进成形复合成形锥形件,当胀形的最大减薄量发生在局部渐进成形区内,并且胀形和渐进成形的最大减薄量位置方向相反时,锥形件壁厚趋于均匀,提高了胀形-渐进成形的复合成形能力。     

不等厚激光拼焊板杯突试验及模拟

针对厚1.8 mm的SAPH440和厚2.2 mm的DP600不等厚异质板材采用激光焊接技术实现拼焊,进一步研究SAPH440和DP600的不等厚激光拼焊板的焊接接头性能和成形性能。针对拼焊板的胀形性进行杯突试验,研究表明,当薄板SAPH440所占的比例较厚板DP600大时,拼焊板的杯突值低于任何一侧母材的杯突值,即拼焊板的胀形性低于母材。并利用Dynaform软件对拼焊板的成形过程进行仿真分析：结果表明两侧板材变形不均匀,焊缝向厚板侧移动。     

A fast algorithm for strain prediction in tube hydroforming based on one-step inverse approach

This paper presents recent developments of a simplified finite element method called the inverse approach (IA) for the estimation of large elastoplastic strains and thickness distribution in tube hydroforming. The basic formulation of the IA, proposed by Guo et al. (1990), has been modified and adapted for the modeling of three-dimensional tube hydroforming problems in which the initial geometry is a circular tube expanded by internal pressure and submitted to axial feed at the tube ends. The application of the IA is illustrated through the analyses of numerical applications concerning the hydroforming of axisymmetric bulge, made from aluminum alloy 6061-T6 tubing, the hydroforming of square section hollow component and the hydroforming of a free Tee extrusion from welded low carbon steel LCS-1008 tubing. Verifications of the obtained results have been carried out using experimental results together with the classical explicit dynamic incremental approach using ABAQUS^® commercial code to show the effectiveness of our approach.     

5A06-O aluminium–magnesium alloy sheet warm hydroforming and optimization of process parameters

The uniaxial tensile test of the 5A06-O aluminium–magnesium (Al–Mg) alloy sheet was performed in the temperature range of 20–300 °C to obtain the true stress–true strain curves at different temperatures and strain rates. The constitutive model of 5A06-O Al–Mg alloy sheet with the temperature range from 150 to 300°C was established. Based on the test results, a unique finite element simulation platform for warm hydroforming of 5A06-O Al–Mg alloy was set up using the general finite element software MSC.Marc to simulate warm hydroforming of classic specimen, and a coupled thermo-mechanical finite element model for warm hydroforming of cylindrical cup was built up. Combined with the experiment, the influence of the temperature field distribution and loading conditions on the sheet formability was studied. The results show that the non-isothermal temperature distribution conditions can significantly improve the forming performance of the material. As the temperature increases, the impact of the punching speed on the forming becomes particularly obvious; the optimal values of the fluid pressure and blank holder force required for forming are reduced.     

板料粘性介质胀形过程应变速率变化的模拟研究

采用半固态、具有应变速率敏感性的粘性介质作为板料软模成形传力介质, 这种粘性传力介质的抗力可随板料发生局部变形而迅速增加, 建立起适应于板料变形的压力, 对提高板料成形性十分有益。本文针对板料粘性介质胀形, 采用有限元模拟方法研究了板料与介质应变速率变化, 模拟结果显示介质应变速率与相接触的板料应变速率是一致的, 解释了粘性传力介质变形抗力 “自适应”于板料变形的原因。     

Deep spinning of sheet metals

Spinning of sheet metals into cylindrical cups is an important sheet metal forming process for its advantages of flexible tooling and very small forming loads. The most challenging aspect in this process is its low formability due to wrinkling formation in the free flange. In this work, a new deep spinning process with roller set aided with blank-holder of constant clearance is proposed aiming to suppress the wrinkling formation in the deformation zone. Experimental work on annealed and hard aluminum sheet metals is carried out to assess the new process. The proposed spinning process has shown rapid increase in the formability of the sheet metals as the roller feed increases. On the other hand, significant increase in the roller feed worsens the formability of sheet metals in conventional spinning. The Limiting Spinning Ratios, LSRs; or the blank to mandrel diameters ratios, have increased from 1.75 using the conventional spinning to 2.40 using the deep spinning with annealed aluminum sheets in one pass. Also, the LSRs have increased from 1.67 using the conventional spinning to 2.24 using the deep spinning with hard aluminum sheets in one pass. New failure modes of flange jamming and wall fracture have been presented and discussed. In addition, the formability limitations, thickness strains, and spun cup form features at different process parameters are experimentally investigated and discussed. Further, a finite element model for the new process is presented and verified showing the limitation of the available shell elements offered by ANSYS Mechanical APDL in modeling the new process.     

A simple experimental tooling with internal pressure source used for evaluation of material formability in tube hydroforming

Material properties have powerful impact on the tube hydroforming (THF) process and the quality of the deformed tube, so it is important to select proper materials and evaluate the material formability prior to conducting the process. A simplified and applied tooling, which has no use for any external hydraulic pressure source but internal one, was designed for charactering the material formability in THF. A pressurized-fluid supplier is automatically established to provide the internal pressure and axial load synchronously required for THF, and the ratio of the two loads is achieved by proper design of the supplier. As a stand-alone hydraulic bulging fixture, the tooling can be worked on a conventional press, even on a single action press. Free bulge forming (FBF), bulge forming with axial loading (BFAL), free and restrained bulge forming (free and fixed ends) can be fulfilled by the tooling, and furthermore, bulge forming with proportional loading to some extend can be realized. Comparative bulge forming experiments under various forming conditions were carried out with the tooling to validate this project and the results suggest that restrained conditions on the tube ends highly affect the FBF, while the ratio of the two loads dominates the BFAL.