CO偶联合成草酸二甲酯催化剂研究

采用浸渍法制备CO偶联制备草酸二甲酯用负载型Pd催化剂,考察载体、浸渍方法、Pd含量、助剂对Pd催化剂性能的影响。根据傅里叶变换红外光谱研究Pd/α-Al_2O_3负载型催化剂上CO偶联制草酸二甲酯的反应机理。结果表明,采用α-Al_2O_3载体,Pd质量分数4‰,掺杂助剂Cu的蛋壳型的Pd/α-Al_2O_3催化剂上,草酸二甲酯时空收率达到735.7 g·(L·h)~(-1)。     

CO与亚硝酸甲酯偶联合成草酸酯钯催化剂失活原因探讨

贵金属Pd作为催化剂活性组分广泛用于精细化工、环保、炼油催化剂等领域,如不饱和有机物加氢、机动车尾气净化、烟气脱销、催化重整等。CO与亚硝酸甲酯(MN)偶联合成草酸酯催化剂(Pd/α-Al_2O_3)虽已应用,但失活研究较少,主要是天津大学进行了该催化剂的失活研究。文章参考其它贵金属Pd催化剂失活原因,对草酸酯合成催化剂(Pd/α-Al_2O_3)可能的失活原因进行探讨。     

载体种类及其酸改性对Pd基催化剂直接合成H_2O_2性能的影响

以SiO_2、AC、γ-Al_2O_3和ZSM-5为载体,采用等体积浸渍法制备系列Pd基催化剂;利用柠檬酸和硝酸改性γ-Al_2O_3制备Pd基催化剂,并使用CO-脉冲化学吸附、N2吸附脱附曲线,NH3-TPD对催化剂进行表征分析,利用评价装置测定各催化剂对直接合成H_2O_2的影响。结果表明,催化剂合成H_2O_2的产率(PH_2O_2)、收率(YH_2O_2)及选择性(SH_2O_2)顺序与其表面活性组分Pd的分散度以及催化剂表面弱酸量大小顺序一致。活性组分Pd的分散度越大,提供的活性位点越多,催化剂活性越高;催化剂表面弱酸量越大,能够提供质子化H_2O_2的H+越多,能有效抑制H_2O_2分解和氢化,H_2O_2稳定性高; Pd/γ-Al_2O_3(NMS)有最高的Pd分散度和表面酸量,其合成H_2O_2的催化活性最高。     

自组装低负载量Pd/γ-Al2O3催化剂催化氧化甲苯

以PdCl_2和Pd2(dba)3[三(二亚苄基丙酮)二钯]为前驱体,通过浸渍法、沉积沉淀法和自组装法分别制备了负载量(质量分数,下同)为0.03%的Pd/γ-Al_2O_3-IM、Pd/γ-Al_2O_3-DP和Pd/γ-Al_2O_3-SA催化剂用于催化氧化甲苯。在甲苯体积分数为0.1%、空速(SV)为18000 m L/(g·h)条件下,Pd/γ-Al_2O_3-SA催化剂上甲苯实现98%转化率的温度(T98)为220℃,比Pd/γ-Al_2O_3-DP和Pd/γ-Al_2O_3-IM分别降低了40和75℃。通过N2吸附-脱附、XRD、TEM、XPS和H2-TPR对催化剂进行了表征。结果表明:自组装法制备的Pd/γ-Al_2O_3-SA催化剂的比表面积(345 m2/g)和孔体积(0.52 cm3/g)最大,Pd纳米粒子(Pd NPs)平均粒径最小(5.0 nm),活性物种主要以Pd O的形式高度分散于载体γ-Al_2O_3表面。此外,Pd O与载体γ-Al_2O_3之间的强相互作用(SMSI)促进了其催化氧化甲苯的活性。     

不同载体负载Pd双功能催化剂制备及其液相甲醇催化一步合成甲酸甲酯

以γ-Al_2O_3、ZrO_2、Bentonite(膨润土)、MIL-53(Al)和MIL-53(Fe)为载体,采用浸渍法制备负载Pd双功能催化剂,利用XRD、BET和NH3-TPD等表征催化剂结构,在微型高压反应器中评价催化剂的液相甲醇一步催化转化合成甲酸甲酯的反应性能,考察反应条件对催化剂性能的影响。结果表明,不同载体负载Pd催化剂未观察到Pd的XRD特征峰,表明催化剂表面的Pd是高分散状态。不同载体负载Pd催化剂的比表面积、酸强度和酸量差别较大,并且酸强度和酸量对甲醇转化率和产物选择性有较大影响。具有较多中强酸的2%Pd/Bentonite、2%Pd/MIL-53(Al)和2%Pd/MIL-53(Fe)催化剂比中强酸较少的2%Pd/γ-Al_2O_3和2%Pd/ZrO_2催化剂具有更高的甲醇转化率和甲酸甲酯选择性。2%Pd/Bentonite催化剂在每摩尔甲醇Pd用量为0. 030 mmol、反应温度150℃、O_2压力2 MPa和反应时间5 h条件下,液相甲醇一步催化转化合成甲酸甲酯反应中,甲醇转化率56. 08%,甲酸甲酯选择性55. 85%。     

稀土复合催化剂的制备及催化湿式氧化性能

以550℃焙烧的拟薄水铝石为载体,Fe(NO_3)_2·9H_2O和Ce(NO_3)_2·6H_2O为前驱体,通过等体积浸渍法制备负载型Fe_xCe_(1-x)/γ-Al_2O_3(x=0,0.5,1)复合催化剂,通过SEM、TEM表征Fe/γ-Al_2O_3、Ce/γ-Al_2O_3及Fe_(0.5)Ce_(0.5)/γ-Al_2O_3催化剂,并考察Fe_(0.5)Ce_(0.5)/γ-Al_2O_3复合型催化剂分别在160、180、200和220℃反应温度条件下陶瓷印花废水的降解性能。结果表明:Ce改性后的Fe_(0.5)Ce_(0.5)/γ-Al_2O_3催化剂表面颗粒分布均匀,颗粒大小约为30 nm,在200℃反应温度条件下陶瓷印花废水的脱色率高达99.1%,色度为70倍,达到《污水综合排放标准》(GB8978-1996)中染料类废水的二级排放标准。     

乙烯基乙炔选择加氢制丁二烯工艺研究

采用硝酸钯二水化合物(Pd(NO_3)_2·2H_2O)通过等体积浸渍法制备负载型Pd催化剂,在其催化下,乙烯基乙炔(MVA)选择加氢制丁二烯;研究负载型Pd催化剂的制备工艺以及MVA选择加氢制丁二烯的工艺条件,并对催化剂的催化性能及加氢效果进行表征。结果表明:以氧化铝(α-Al_2O_3)为载体,负载Pd质量分数为0.08%,还原温度400℃时,制备的负载型Pd催化剂(Pd/α-Al_2O_3)结晶良好,对载体结构的影响不明显,催化剂的孔结构比较均匀,对MVA选择加氢反应的催化性能好;在MVA选择加氢催化剂评价装置上,在Pd/α-Al_2O_3催化下进行MVA选择加氢反应,较佳工艺条件为反应温度30℃、MVA空速100 mL/(h·g)、炔氢比1.2,反应的主要产物为丁二烯,MVA转化率达到50%,丁二烯选择性达到85%。     

载体对Pd和Pt催化剂加氢脱硫反应性能的影响

以质量分数为0.8%的二苯并噻吩(DBT)的十氢萘溶液为模型化合物,考察了SiO_2,Si-MCM-41和Al-MCM-41负载的Pd和Pt催化剂加氢脱硫(HDs)反应性能,并与传统的γ-Al_2O_3负载的催化剂进行了对比.反应结果表明,负载型Pd和Pt催化剂在DBT的HDS反应中表现出不同的反应特点.Pd催化剂具有较高的加氢反应路径(HYD)选择性,而Pt催化剂则表现出较高的直接脱硫路径(DDS)选择性.载体结构和表面酸性显著影响其负载的Pd和Pt贵金属催化剂的HDS活性以及HYD选择性和稳定性.提高载体比表面积和酸性有利于提高负载型贵金属催化剂HYD选择性.Al-MCM-41具有规整的介孔结构、较高比表面积和较强酸性,其负载的Pd和Pt催化剂表现出较高的HYD选择性和稳定性.研究还发现,催化剂加氢裂化反应活性随载体酸性的提高而增加.     

Cu-Ce-Zr基催化剂上CO自持燃烧及动力学实验研究

为了研究Cu-Ce-Zr基催化剂上CO的自持燃烧,采用浸渍法制备了负载型Cu Ce_(0.75)Zr_(0.25)O_y/ZSM-5、Cu Ce_(0.75)Zr_(0.25)O_y/Ti O_2和溶胶凝胶法制备了复合氧化物Cu Ce_(0.75)Zr_(0.25)O_y催化剂,结合XRD、BET、SEM、O_2-TPD及CO-TPO等手段对催化剂进行表征与CO自持燃烧反应活性评价。结果表明:CO自持催化燃烧主要分为反应诱导阶段、飞温阶段及自持燃烧3个阶段。催化剂活性Cu Ce_(0.75)Zr_(0.25)O_y(t_(100)=65℃)Cu Ce_(0.75)Zr_(0.25)O_y/Ti O_2(t_(100)=150℃)Cu Ce_(0.75)Zr_(0.25)O_y/ZSM-5(t_(100)=172℃)。表观动力学研究表明,CO催化燃烧均遵循一级反应动力学,反应表观活化能大小顺序为Cu Ce_(0.75)Zr_(0.25)O_y/ZSM-5(259.7 k J/mol)Cu Ce_(0.75)Zr_(0.25)O_y/Ti O_2(69.7 k J/mol)Cu Ce_(0.75)Zr_(0.25)O_y(55.4 k J/mol)。催化剂中活性物种质量分数对催化剂还原能力与储放氧能力的影响显著。     

载体种类及其酸改性对Pd基催化剂直接合成H_2O_2性能的影响

以SiO_2、AC、γ-Al_2O_3和ZSM-5为载体,采用等体积浸渍法制备系列Pd基催化剂;利用柠檬酸和硝酸改性γ-Al_2O_3制备Pd基催化剂,并使用CO-脉冲化学吸附、N2吸附脱附曲线,NH3-TPD对催化剂进行表征分析,利用评价装置测定各催化剂对直接合成H_2O_2的影响。结果表明,催化剂合成H_2O_2的产率(PH_2O_2)、收率(YH_2O_2)及选择性(SH_2O_2)顺序与其表面活性组分Pd的分散度以及催化剂表面弱酸量大小顺序一致。活性组分Pd的分散度越大,提供的活性位点越多,催化剂活性越高;催化剂表面弱酸量越大,能够提供质子化H_2O_2的H+越多,能有效抑制H_2O_2分解和氢化,H_2O_2稳定性高; Pd/γ-Al_2O_3(NMS)有最高的Pd分散度和表面酸量,其合成H_2O_2的催化活性最高。     

Performance and characterization of supported metal catalysts for complete oxidation of formaldehyde at low temperatures

Activities of a series of metals (Pt, Pd, Rh, Cu, Mn) supported on TiO₂ were investigated for the catalytic oxidation of formaldehyde. Among them, Pt/TiO₂ was found to be the most promising catalyst. Nitrogen adsorption, hydrogen chemisorption, X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and temperature programmed reduction (TPR) by H₂ were used to characterize the platinum catalysts. Using Ce_0.8Zr_0.2O₂, Ce_0.2Zr_0.8O₂, SiO₂ as supports instead of TiO₂, the activity sequence of 0.6 wt.% platinum with respect to the supports is TiO₂ > SiO₂ > Ce_0.8Zr_0.2O₂ > Ce_0.2Zr_0.8O₂, and this appears to be correlated with the dispersion of platinum on supports rather than the specific surface areas of the catalysts. Platinum loading on TiO₂ has a great effect on the catalytic activity, and 0.6 wt.% Pt/TiO₂ catalyst was observed to be the most active, which could be attributed to the well-dispersed platinum surface phase. The reduction temperature greatly affects the particle size and, consequently, the catalytic activity. The smaller particle size of platinum, due to its high dispersion on support, has a positive effect on catalytic performance. Increasing formaldehyde concentration and space velocity exhibits an inhibiting effect on the catalytic activity.     

液相原位还原法制备钯基催化剂

采用液相原位还原法制备Pd/α-Al2O3催化剂,并应用于CO氧化偶联合成草酸二甲酯反应。对比实验发现,甲醛液相原位还原法制得的Pd基催化剂具有优异的催化活性,当Pd负载质量分数低至0.1%时,催化剂仍表现出较高的活性和稳定性。采用XRD和BET等对催化剂及载体进行表征,结果表明,催化剂活性与载体的比表面积、孔容和孔径没有必然联系。通过TEM发现,0.1%-Pd/α-Al2O3催化剂中的主要活性组分Pd具有较小的颗粒和较高的分散性,通过HRTEM发现,液相原位还原法制备的催化剂能够有效暴露出Pd(111)晶面。     

Effect of γ-alumina crystallinity on the state of rhodium during high-temperature treatments in oxygen and hydrogen

Rhodium catalysts, supported on six γ-Al₂O₃ supports with different crystallinities, were exposed to sequential treatments in hydrogen at 500°C, in oxygen at 760°C, in hydrogen at 500°C and at 760°C, respectively. Samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction and hydrogen chemisorption at various stages in the sequential treatment. Based on the characterization results, it is concluded that the formation of crystalline Rh₂O₃ is a function of γ-Al₂O₃ crystallinity; formation of crystalline Rh₂O₃ increased with increasing crystallinity of γ-Al₂O₃ during treatment in oxygen at 760°C. The crystalline Rh₂O₃ formed during treatment in oxygen at 760°C was reduced to Rh metal by hydrogen at 500°C, but most of the Rh did not adsorb hydrogen at room temperature. Subsequent treatment in hydrogen at 760°C increased the hydrogen adsorption capacity by as much as a factor of three. X-ray line broadening measurements showed that oxygen treatment of reduced Rh/γ-Al₂O₃ at 760°C followed by hydrogen reduction at 500°C resulted in significant increases in Rh crystal size; further treatment in hydrogen at 760°C resulted in additional sintering of Rh.     

Preparation of CexZr1−xO2 (x = 0.75, 0.62) solid solution and its application in Pd-only three-way catalysts

Nanoparticles of Ce_xZr_1−xO₂ (x = 0.75, 0.62) were prepared by the oxidation-coprecipitation method using H₂O₂ as an oxidant, and characterized by N₂ adsorption, XRD and H₂-TPR. Ce_xZr_1−xO₂ prepared had single fluorite cubic structure, good thermal stability and reduction property. With the increasing of Ce/Zr ratio, the surface area of Ce_xZr_1−xO₂ increased, but thermal stability of Ce_xZr_1−xO₂ decreased. The surface area of Ce_0.62Zr_0.38O₂ was 41.2 m²/g after calcination in air at 900 °C for 6 h. TPR results showed the formation of solid solution promoted the reduction of CeO₂, and the reduction properties of Ce_xZr_1−xO₂ were enhanced by the cycle of TPR-reoxidation. The Pd-only three-way catalysts (TWC) were prepared by the impregnation method, in which Ce_0.75Zr_0.25O₂ was used as the active washcoat and Pd loading was 0.7 g/L. In the test of Air/Fuel, the conversion of C₃H₈ was close to 100% and NO was completely converted at λ < 1.025. The high conversion of C₃H₈ was induced by the steam reform and dissociation adsorption reaction of C₃H₈. Pd-only catalyst using Ce_0.75Zr_0.25O₂ as active washcoat showed high light off activity, the reaction temperatures (T₅₀) of 50% conversion of CO, C₃H₈ and NO were 180, 200 and 205 °C, respectively. However, the conversions of C₃H₈ and NO showed oscillation with continuously increasing the reaction temperature. The presence of La₂O₃ in washcoat decreased the light off activity and suppressed the oscillation of C₃H₈ and NO conversion. After being aged at 900 °C for 4 h, the operation windows of catalysts shifted slightly to rich burn. The presence of La₂O₃ in active washcoat can enhance the thermal stability of catalyst significantly.     

Preparation of new solid superacid catalyst, zirconium sulfate supported on γ-alumina and activity for acid catalysis

Zirconium sulfate supported on γ-Al₂O₃ catalysts were prepared by impregnation of powdered γ-Al₂O₃ with zirconium sulfate aqueous solution followed by calcining in air at high temperature. For Zr(SO₄)₂/γ-Al₂O₃ samples, no diffraction line of zirconium sulfate was observed up to 50 wt.%, indicating good dispersion of Zr(SO₄)₂ on the surface of γ-Al₂O₃. The acidity of catalysts increased in proportion to the zirconium sulfate content up to 40 wt.% of Zr(SO₄)₂. 40-Zr(SO₄)₂/γ-Al₂O₃ calcined at 400 °C exhibited maximum catalytic activities for 2-propanol dehydration and cumene dealkylation. The catalytic activities for both reactions, 2-propanol dehydration and cumene dealkylation were correlated with the acidity of catalysts measured by ammonia chemisorption method.     

The oxidizing role of CO2 at mild temperature on ceria-based catalysts

For thermodynamic reasons, CO₂ has always been considered as inert at mild reaction temperatures (300 °C). In this study, we show that CO₂ may be used as a valuable compound for the catalytic combustion of methane (CCM), if ceria-based materials are used as support for the palladium active phase. Adding CO₂ in the feed significantly improves performances of ceria-zirconia supported catalysts. On the contrary, catalytic performances are inhibited on Pd/γ-Al₂O₃. Inhibition can be avoided by mixing the Pd/γ-Al₂O₃ catalyst with some CeO₂ evidencing cooperation phenomena between both catalysts. In situ DRIFTS experiments show that the inhibition of the alumina-supported catalyst is not due to formation of carbonates species. After an in situ reducing pre-treatment, pure CO₂ is able to rapidly oxidize reduced Pd/Ce_0.21Zr_0.79O₂ catalyst at 300 °C. Dissociation of CO₂ on Ce_0.21Zr_0.79O₂ would be responsible for the oxidation process. Thus, CO₂ helps in replenishing the O reservoir (OSC) of the Ce-Zr-O support which is normally consumed by reductants such as CH₄, H₂ or other HC's. XPS experiments show enrichment in oxygen species bound to Ce (Low BE O1s) on the surface of ceria-zirconia when working in the presence of CO₂. Implications of these results on the behavior of ceria-containing catalysts can be important for practical applications, e.g., in automotive exhaust catalysis.     

Palladium–vanadium interaction in binary supported catalysts

We have studied the activity and selectivity of Pd/γ-Al₂O₃, VO_x/γ-Al₂O₃ and Pd–VO_x/γ-Al₂O₃ catalysts for the decomposition of NO and the reduction of NO with CO. Pd–VO_x/γ-Al₂O₃ catalysts were prepared by anchoring Pd(AcAc)₂ on VO_x/γ-Al₂O₃. Characterization of the binary samples by hydrogen chemisorption and TPR measurements indicated that the reduction of VO_x is enhanced by a close contact with palladium and that partially reduced vanadia decorate noble metal particles. This palladium–vanadium interaction alters the catalytic properties of palladium: the activity for NO decomposition is higher for the binary sample and, for the NO–CO reaction, both the activity and the selectivity to N₂ increase when vanadium is in contact with palladium.     

Synthesis and catalytic properties of Ce0.6Zr0.4O2 solid solutions in the oxidation of soluble organic fraction from diesel engines

Ce_0.6Zr_0.4O₂ solid solutions were synthesized by co-precipitation, sol–gel like method, solution combustion and surfactant-assistant approaches, respectively. The catalytic properties of bulk and γ-Al₂O₃ supported Ce_0.6Zr_0.4O₂ solid solutions were studied for the oxidation of soluble organic fractions (SOF) from diesel engines by TG-DTA method. The physicochemical properties were characterized by XRD, BET surface area and pore distribution, SEM, TEM, and particle size distribution techniques. XRD and TEM results show that a Ce_0.6Zr_0.4O₂ solid solution was formed for samples as-prepared and heat-treated at 900 °C for 2 h in air. The co-precipitation derived Ce_0.6Zr_0.4O₂ has as high BET surface area as 153.71 m²/g by controlling preparation conditions. Notable is that the surface area and particle size for fresh Ce_0.6Zr_0.4O₂ ignited at 350 °C decreased little after a thermal treatment in air at 900 °C for 2 h. Furthermore, its bulk density is lowest. The commercial engine oil (SJ5W/40) for FAW-VOLKSWAGEN, which was used by Bora 1.9 TDI diesel cars in China market was substituted for SOF. The catalytic activity was evaluated by normalized peak areas and extrapolated onset temperatures of DTA curves. A computer program was developed by direct non-linear regression model for simulation of TG/DTG curves to determine the thermal processes and kinetic parameters. It is found that lube evaporation/decomposition and thermal decomposition (pyrolysis) were observed under a nitrogen atmosphere. Lube evaporation fractions were inhibited by Ce_0.6Zr_0.4O₂ and γ-Al₂O₃. While under an air atmosphere, namely, in the process of lube oxidation (combustion), evaporation/decomposition, low-temperature oxidation and high-temperature oxidation were distinguished. Ce_0.6Zr_0.4O₂ solid solutions are active catalysts for lube oxidation, in which the sample prepared by solution combustion has the highest activity, mainly due to the maintenance of the surface area and particle size upon sintering and its lowest bulk density. However, γ-Al₂O₃ is more like a support. There exists synergism between Ce_0.6Zr_0.4O₂ and γ-Al₂O₃: γ-Al₂O₃ adsorbs lube retaining it within its pore structure, whereas, Ce_0.6Zr_0.4O₂ solid solutions initiate oxidation reactions when light-off temperatures reach. The application of CeO₂-ZrO₂ solid solution prepared by solution combustion at lower temperature would be promising in diesel oxidation catalysts.     

Platinum group metals as catalysts in enantioselective 1-phenylpropane-1,2-dione hydrogenation

Different γ-Al₂O₃ supported Ir, Pd, Ru, Rh and Pt catalysts were tested in enantioselective 1-phenylpropane-1,2-dione hydrogenation using cinchona alkaloid modifiers. Activity and enantioselectivity over Ir and Ru catalysts were low. Pd catalyst was active in the hydrogenation of 1-phenylpropane-1,2-dione, however, the enantioselectivity over this catalyst was almost negligible. Over Pd hydrogenation proceeded mainly via hydrogenation of the C₁O₁ carbonyl group, which is attached to the phenyl ring. Hydrogenation over Pd did not proceed in the second hydrogenation step via an enol form as found for ethyl pyruvate hydrogenation over Pd. The structure-selectivity relationship and solvent effects are similar over Pt and Rh in the first hydrogenation step. However, in the second hydrogenation step of hydroxyketones to diols large mechanistical differences between Pt and Rh were observed. Although the activity over Rh catalysts was lower than over Pt after optimization the best result obtained with Rh/γ-Al₂O₃ (5754 Lancaster) was 60% ee in toluene at maximum yield of 28%, which makes Rh a promising metal for enantioselective hydrogenation.     

The effect of CeO2 structure on the activity of supported Pd catalysts used for methane steam reforming

Palladium (Pd) supported on CeO₂-promoted γ-Al₂O₃ with various CeO₂ (ceria) crystallinities, were used as catalysts in the methane steam reforming reaction. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, FTIR spectroscopy of adsorbed CO, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were employed to characterize the samples in terms of Pd and CeO₂ structure and dispersion on the γ-Al₂O₃ support. These results were correlated with the observed catalytic activity and deactivation process. Arrhenius plots at steady-state conditions are presented as a function of CeO₂ structure. Pd is present on the oxidized CeO₂-promoted catalysts as Pd⁰, Pd⁺ and Pd²⁺, at ratios strongly dependent on CeO₂ structure. XRD measurements indicated that Pd is well dispersed (particles <2 nm) on crystalline CeO₂ and is agglomerated as large clusters (particles in 10–20 nm range) on amorphous CeO₂. FTIR spectra of adsorbed CO revealed that after pre-treatment under H₂ or in the presence of amorphous CeO₂, partial encapsulation of Pd particles occurs. CeO₂ structure influences the CH₄ steam reforming reaction rates. Crystalline CeO₂ and dispersed Pd favor high reaction rates (low activation energy). The presence of CeO₂ as a promoter conferred high catalytic activity to the alumina-supported Pd catalysts. The catalytic activity is significantly lower on Pd/γ-Al₂O₃ or on amorphous (reduced) CeO₂/Al₂O₃ catalysts. The reaction rates are two orders of magnitude higher on Pd/CeO₂/γ-Al₂O₃ than on Pd/γ-Al₂O₃, which is attributed to a catalytic synergism between Pd and CeO₂. The low rates on the reduced Pd/CeO₂/Al₂O₃ catalysts can be correlated with the loss of Pd sites through encapsulation or particle agglomeration, a process found mostly irreversible after catalyst regeneration.