水化针刺GCL+GM复合衬里的单剪破坏特征

针刺GCL和HDPE土工膜(GM)广泛应用于填埋场防渗衬里,GCL的内部剪切强度和GCL/GM界面剪切强度是填埋场复合衬里边坡滑移稳定性的控制因素。通过开展不限定剪切破坏面的水化针刺GCL+GM复合衬里大单剪试验,获得了剪切过程中GCL/GM界面位移和GCL内部位移发展规律,分析了GM的糙面分别与GCL的有纺面和无纺面接触时的峰值强度,揭示了GCL+GM复合衬里的整体剪切破坏特征。试验结果表明:大单剪试验能够正确和合理地模拟GCL与GM间的相互作用,GCL+GM复合衬里中的极限破坏面不仅会随着法向应力的增加而发生转移,甚至出现GCL内部和GCL/GM界面同时成为剪切破坏面的临界状态。     

Shear strength and failure mechanism of needle-punched geosynthetic clay liner

The internal shear strength of a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) within composite liner systems is crucial for the stability of landfills and should be carefully considered in the design. To explore the shear strength and failure mechanism of the extensively used needle-punched GCL, a series of displacement-controlled direct shear tests with five normal stress levels (250–1000 kPa) and eight displacement rates (1–200 mm/min) were conducted. The shear stress to horizontal displacement relationships exhibit well-defined peak shear strengths and significant post-peak strength reductions. The monitoring results of the thickness change indicate that the degree of volumetric contraction is related to the reorientation of fibers and dissipation of pore water pressure. Furthermore, the peak and residual shear strengths both depend on the displacement rate because of the rate-dependent tensile stiffness of needle-punched fibers and shear strength of the soil/geosynthetic interface. Through additional tests and lateral comparison, it was discovered that the shear behavior of sodium bentonite, degree of hydration, and pore water pressures all affect the shear mechanisms of the NP GCL. In particular, the failure mode transfers from fiber pullout to fiber rupture with the increase in water content as the hydrated bentonite particles facilitate the stretching of needle-punched fibers.     

Dynamic shear behaviors of textured geomembrane/nonwoven geotextile interface under cyclic loading

Textured geomembrane (GMB) and nonwoven geotextile (GTX) are usually used together in liner systems of MSW landfills, but the low shear strength of GMB/GTX interface is extremely detrimental to the stability of landfills, especially under earthquake loading. To study the dynamic shear strength of the GMB/GTX interface, a series of displacement-controlled cyclic direct shear tests are conducted with a large-scale direct shear machine. Normal stress levels ranging from 100 to 1000 kPa and displacement amplitudes ranging from 5 to 25 mm are considered. To compare the failure mechanism, GMB and GTX specimens are tested in not only hydrated but also dry conditions. Different waveforms and excitation frequencies are also applied to analyze the effects of test conditions. It can be seen that the shear deformation develops totally along the GMB/GTX interface when specimens are fully hydrated, while the internal failure of GTX is induced in dry condition. Equivalent linear analyses reveal that the shear stiffness depends on normal stress and displacement amplitude, while the damping ratio is only affected by displacement amplitude. Variations of shear strength during the shear process indicate that the softening behavior of the GMB/GTX interface is closely related to cumulative displacement and normal stress level. Furthermore, based on test results, a positive correlation is summarized between the shear strength and displacement rate of the interface.     

Effect of geotextile ageing and geomembrane surface roughness on the geomembrane-geotextile interfaces for heap leaching applications

A series of large scale direct shear experiments is used to investigate the effect of the geomembrane (GMB) surface roughness, geotextile (GTX) properties, and GTX ageing, on the GMB-GTX interface shear behaviour. Interfaces involving smooth, coextruded textured, and structured surface GMBs underlying four different nonwoven needle-punched staple fibres (GTXs) with mass per unit areas between 200 and 2400 g/m², and a geocomposite drain (GCD) are examined at normal stresses between 250 and 1000 kPa. The results showed that the interlocking between the GMB and GTX increased with increasing the GMB asperity height and/or decreasing the mass per unit area of the GTX. For the interfaces that involved GTXs preaged prior to the shear box experiments for up to 2 years at 85 °C, it was found that the 2400 g/m² heat bonded two-layered GTX exhibited internal shear failure at low shear displacements. However, all the highly aged single layered GTXs showed an increase in the peak interface friction angles with the increase in their ageing. For these single layered GTX, the results suggest that assessing the interface friction angles using unaged GTXs for the stability analysis is conservative as long as the GTX remains intact in the field.     

Investigation of mechanisms of bentonite extrusion from GCL and related effects on the shear strength of GCL/GM interfaces

Two groups of laboratory tests were carried out to investigate the effect of bentonite extrusion from a hydrated GCL on the shear strength of GCL/GM interfaces. All tests were performed with the woven geotextile side of GCL against the GM. The first group of tests were one-dimensional loading tests in which the GCL/GM specimens were subjected to hydration and vertical loading involving different sequences and loading rates. The second group of tests were large direct shear tests that studied the effect of shearing on bentonite extrusion and hence on shear strength reduction. It was found that bentonite extrusion occurs more readily from GCL/GM interfaces subjected to a swelling-loading sequence than those subjected to a loading-swelling sequence. The quantity of extruded bentonite during the normal loading showed an increasing trend with an increase in loading rate. The total mass/area of extruded bentonite during the normal loading ranged from 0 to 21.9 g/m², which was less than the quantity of bentonite extruded during the subsequent shearing (i.e., 10.7 – 81.1 g/m²). It was found that the volume of bentonite extruded at the large shear displacement caused a significant strength loss equivalent with 8° in terms of interface friction angle. The influence of bentonite extrusion on the peak shear strength showed a magnitude of 3.5° in terms of interface friction angle. The relatively insignificant bentonite extrusion during hydration and normal loading was observed to have a minor effect on the strength loss. Observations from the experimental results provide further insight into the mechanisms of bentonite extrusion.     

水化状态对含针刺GCL复合衬里抗剪强度的影响分析

针刺GCL和HDPE土工膜(GM)在防渗工程中应用广泛,含多层界面的复合衬里整体抗剪强度是边坡稳定性分析的关键。介绍了含针刺GCL复合衬里的大单剪试验方法,并且对比分析了针刺GCL初始状态分别为干燥和完全水化两种情况下的复合衬里抗剪强度。结果表明,复合衬里的剪切破坏不会发生在干燥针刺GCL内部界面,而GCL干燥状态下的复合衬里单剪强度未必高于GCL完全水化状态下的复合衬里单剪强度。结合含GCL复合衬里的剪切破坏机理,阐述了针刺GCL的水化状态对复合衬里抗剪强度的影响。含GCL复合衬里在不同水化状态下的界面滑移稳定性都应引起工程人员的重视。     

Effect of geosynthetic component characteristics on the potential for GCL internal erosion

Experiments quantifying GCL permittivity and the ultimate water head the GCLs can sustain before the initiation of internal erosion when underlain by a 50 mm angular to subangular gravel subgrade are conducted. The influence of different geotextiles over the subgrade, water heads, hydration periods before testing, masses per unit area of bentonite within the GCL, and ionic strengths of the solution (cation exchange) are considered. Test results show that GCL with the scrim-reinforced nonwoven geotextile over the subgrade has the best hydraulic performance against internal erosion, followed by the woven geotextile coated with a 110 g/m² polypropylene film. A woven or nonwoven is the least useful for preventing internal erosion, with the corresponding threshold water head initiating internal erosion >39 m for scrim-reinforced nonwoven, 21 m for lightly coated woven, 4–5 m for woven and nonwoven alone, respectively. Cation exchange, length of hydration, and mass per unit area of bentonite do not notably affect the threshold water head for the subgrade examined. Once internal erosion occurs, there is a 3-order of magnitude increase in permittivity. The practical implications are discussed.     

Shear strength of geosynthetic composite systems for design of landfill liner and cover slopes

Torsional ring shear tests were performed on composite specimens that simulate the field alignment of municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill liner and cover system components. Simultaneous shearing was provided to each test specimen without forcing failure to occur through a pre-determined plane. Composite liner specimens consisted of a textured geomembrane (GM) underlain by a needle-punched geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) which in turn underlain by a compacted silty clay. Hydrated specimens were sheared at eleven different normal stress levels. Test results revealed that shear strength of the composite liner system can be controlled by different failure modes depending on the magnitude of normal stress and the comparative values of the GCL interface and internal shear strength. Failure following these modes may result in a bilinear or trilinear peak strength envelope and a corresponding stepped residual strength envelope. Composite cover specimens that comprised textured GM placed on unreinforced smooth GM-backed GCL resting on compacted sand were sheared at five different GCL hydration conditions and a normal stress that is usually imposed on MSW landfill cover geosynthetic components. Test results showed that increasing the GCL hydration moves the shearing plane from the GCL smooth GM backing/sand interface to that of the textured GM/hydrated bentonite. Effects of these interactive shear strength behaviors of composite liner and cover system components on the possibility of developing progressive failure in landfill slopes were discussed. Recommendations for designing landfill geosynthetic-lined slopes were subsequently given. Three-dimensional stability analysis of well-documented case history of failed composite system slope was presented to support the introduced results and recommendations.     

非水反应高聚物与土工材料的界面剪切特性

基于单调直剪试验,研究了竖向应力、剪切速率对非水反应类高聚物-土工布界面及高聚物-砂土界面的剪切应力、剪切位移、抗剪强度和剪切模量等剪切特性的影响.结果表明:在给定竖向应力和剪切速率下,随着剪切位移的增加,高聚物-土工布界面、高聚物-砂土界面均表现出剪切软化的特性;竖向应力对高聚物-土工布界面抗剪强度及剪切模量的影响显著,在剪切速率v=2mm/min下,随着竖向应力由50kPa增加至150kPa,高聚物-土工布界面的抗剪强度由15kPa增至46kPa;在给定竖向应力下,剪切速率v=1~3mm/min时,剪切速率对高聚物-土工布界面的抗剪强度以及高聚物-砂土界面的抗剪强度和剪切模量的影响均较小.     

Geomembrane strains from coarse gravel and wrinkles in a GM/GCL composite liner

The physical response of a 1.5-mm-thick, high-density polyethylene geomembrane (GM) is reported when placed on top of a needle-punched geosynthetic clay liner (GCL), buried beneath 50-mm coarse gravel and subjected to vertical pressure in laboratory experiments. Local strains in the geomembrane caused by indentations from the overlying gravel and deflections of a wrinkle in the geomembrane are quantified. A peak strain of 20% was calculated when a flat geomembrane was tested without a protection layer at an applied vertical pressure of 250 kPa. Strains were smaller with a nonwoven needle-punched geotextile protection layer between the gravel and geomembrane. Increasing the mass per unit area of the geotextile up to 2200 g/m² reduced the geomembrane strain. However, none of the geotextiles tested were sufficient to reduce the geomembrane strain below an allowable limit of 3%, for the particular 50-mm gravel tested and when subjected to a vertical pressure of 250 kPa. Increasing the initial GCL water content and reducing the stiffness of the foundation layer beneath the GCL were found to increase the geomembrane strains. These local strains were greater when a wrinkle was present in the geomembrane. The wrinkle in the geomembrane experienced a decrease in height and width. The wrinkle deformations lead to larger pressures beside the wrinkle and hence producing larger local strains. A 150-mm-thick sand protection layer was effective in limiting the peak strain to less than 0.3% even with a wrinkle in the geomembrane, at a vertical pressure of 250 kPa.     

Effect of wet-dry cycles on standard & polymer-amended GCLs in covers subjected to flow over the GCL

The performance of five different GCLs (two GCLs with standard sodium bentonite and three GCLs with polymer enhanced bentonite) subjected to three different climatic modes of wet-dry cycles simulating conditions to which a GCL might expose in cover systems over a prolonged time is reported. The wetting cycles lasted for 8 h, while the drying cycles varied between 16 h, seven days, and 14 days. It is shown that after around a year of accelerated aging, the hydraulic conductivity of the aged GCLs increased notably when permeated with tap water at an applied effective stress of 15 kPa for a range of heads (0.07, 0.14, 0.21, 0.49, and 1.2 m). The combined effects of the number and the duration of the wet-dry cycles, the GCL's mass per unit area, the carrier geotextile, the size and the number of the needle punch bundles, and the thermal treatment to bond the needle-punch bundles to the carrier geotextile are discussed. The poor hydraulic performance of the polymer-amended/modified bentonite GCLs is discussed.     

Self-healing of circular and slit defects in GCLs upon hydration from silty sand under applied stress

The self-healing of a GCL with artificial defects (circular holes and rectangular slits, both with and without the carrier geotextile preserved below the holes) upon hydration on a Godfrey silty sand (GSS) subgrade with w_fdn = 5, 10 and 16% under 2–100 kPa is examined. Circular holes with the carrier geotextile missing below holes with diameters up to 25.4 mm self-healed on the w_fdn = 5% and 10% GSS but not on 16% GSS, while none self-healed when carrier geotextile was preserved below the holes. When DI water was introduced to the surface under 100 kPa, circular holes with diameter up to 38.1 mm self-healed. Neither the single 15 mm-wide slit nor double 15 mm-wide parallel slits with 20 mm-wide strip of undamaged GCL between them resting on w_fdn = 10% GSS under 20 kPa fully self-healed. The introduction of simulated synthetic landfill leachate (SSL) to the GCL surface under 70 kPa did not result in self-healing. Post-hydration k tests found that GCL without a carrier geotextile below a hole up to 25.4 mm in diameter would not have a significant adverse effect on the hydraulic conductivity compared with an intact GCL provided the permeant was tap water rather than SSL.     

Interface shear strength between geosynthetic clay liner and covering soil on the embankment of an irrigation pond and stability evaluation of its widened sections

Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are typically used for widening sections of an embankment. They are also used as low permeability liners to minimize water leakage from reservoirs such as irrigation ponds. However, few investigations have been carried out on the specific properties of GCLs, such as granulated bentonite sandwiched between geotextiles, their internal shear strength, and the shear strength at the interface between a GCL and an embankment body. In this study, a series of direct box shear tests were performed to determine the shear strength properties of bentonite and compacted soils as well as at the interface between a GCL and bentonite or compacted soil. In addition, a series of field-loading tests were conducted to investigate the failure behaviour of an embankment body containing a GCL when changes in the water content of the bentonite of the GCL in a real embankment occur. Furthermore, the stability of widened embankment bodies that incorporated GCLs were evaluated. The main conclusions of this study are as follows: (1) The shear strength of the interface between the covering soil and geotextiles varied according to the soil type, geotextile type, and the submergence period, (2) the maximum safety factor was observed at the interface between decomposed granite soil and the geotextiles, while the minimum safety factor was observed at the interface between the bentonite and the geotextiles, and (3) the influence of GCLs on the instability of a widened embankment was extremely small.     

Shear strength behavior of geotextile/geomembrane interfaces

This paper aims to study the shear interaction mechanism of one of the critical geosynthetic interfaces,the geotextile/geomembrane,typically used for lined containment facilities such as landfills.A large direct shear machine is used to carry out 90 geosynthetic interface tests.The test results show a strain softening behavior with a very small dilatancy(0.5 mm) and nonlinear failure envelopes at a normal stress range of 25-450 kPa.The influences of the micro-level structure of these geosynthetics on the macro-level interface shear behavior are discussed in detail.This study has generated several practical recommendations to help professionals to choose what materials are more adequate.From the three geotextiles tested,the thermally bonded monofilament exhibits the best interface shear strength under high normal stress.For low normal stress,however,needle-punched monofilaments are recommended.For the regular textured geomembranes tested,the space between the asperities is an important factor.The closer these asperities are,the better the result achieves.For the irregular textured geomembranes tested,the nonwoven geotextiles made of monofilaments produce the largest interface shear strength.     

Large scale direct shear tests of soil/PET-yarn geogrid interfaces

The interface shear strength of soil against geosynthetic is of great interest among the researchers in geosynthetic properties. This study conducts a series of large scale direct shear tests to investigate the interface shear strength of different soils (sand, gravel, and laterite) against PET-yarn geogrids of various tensile strengths, percent open area, and aperture patterns. First, the appropriateness of different set-ups of a lower shearing box is examined in this study. It reveals that a lower box which is filled with the test soil and is of the same size as the upper box is more suitable for testing the soil/geogrid interface. The test results show that the soil/PET-yarn geotextile interface has significantly lower shear strength than soil strength. The ratio of shear strength soil/PET-yarn geotextile interface to internal shear strength of soil is about 0.7–0.8 for Ottawa sand and for laterite, and it is about 0.85–0.95 for gravel. On the other hand, the soil/geogrid interface has higher shear strength. The ratio of shear strength soil/PET-yarn geogrid interface to internal shear strength of soil is about 0.9–1.05. It is found that the shear strength ratio of soil/PET-yarn geogrid interface is positively correlated to the transverse tensile strength of the PET-yarn geogrid. However, it is negatively correlated with the aperture length and percent open area of the PET-yarn geogrid. The interface shear test results of PET-yarn geogrid against different soils are compared with the test results predicted by a classical model for analyzing the applicability of the classical model. Further, a simple model is proposed herein to estimate the bearing resistance provided by the transverse ribs of geogrid. It shows this component to be about 0–15% when PET-yarn geogrid is against Ottawa sand or laterite, while it is smaller when the PET-yarn geogrid is against gravel.     

Performance of multicomponent GCLs in high salinity impoundment applications

The interface transmissivity (θ) of two multicomponent geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) is investigated upon hydration and permeation with a highly saline solution (TDS ≈ 260,000 mg/l; Na⁺ ~ 95,000 mg/l; K⁺~12,000 mg/l) at two stress levels (10 kPa and 150 kPa). One GCL had a smooth 0.2 mm-thick coating whereas the second GCL had a textured 1 mm-thick coating. For both GCLs, the interface transmissivity after 2-weeks is shown to be higher than at steady-state. The lower the geomembrane's (GMB) stiffness, the lower interface transmissivity. However, the effect is generally diminished at steady state and higher stress. The effect of GMB stiffness at 10 kPa is shown to be 1.6-times that at 150 kPa. Similarly, the 2-week and steady state interface transmissivity for the textured GMB was higher at 10 kPa than at 150 kPa. Coating texture and coating orientation are shown to have a significant effect on GMB/multicomponent GCL interface transmissivity. A hole in the coating aligned with GMB hole creates an additional flow path at the coating/GCL interface (θ_Geofilm/GCL), however most of the flow occurs at the coating/GMB interface (θ_Geofilm/GMB).     

Evaluation of Interface Shear Strength between Geosynthetics Under Wet Condition

This paper presents direct shear testing data for interfaces between a nonwoven geotextile or two types of geosynthetic clay liners (GCL) (reinforced and unreinforced) and two types of geomembranes (smooth and textured). In this study, the effect of moisture on interface shear behavior was investigated by performing shear tests in both dry and wet (or hydrated) conditions because the geosynthetic interfaces in a landfill are easily exposed to rain, leachate and groundwater beneath the liners. The degree of strength reduction with increasing displacement and the effect of the normal stress level on friction angles were examined, and the modified hydration method applied for the GCL was also validated. The test results showed that the normal stress level, interface water presence and hydration methods dominated the interface shear strength and behavior. The relationship between the peak secant friction angle and the normal stress demonstrated that the friction angle decreased with increasing normal stress, implying that the shear strength for safe design should be determined by using the maximum value of the normal stress applied in landfills. Finally, comparisons with a few published test results were presented and some design implications for the geosynthetic-installed landfills were discussed.     

土工膜/土工织物界面大型斜坡模型试验研究

复合衬垫系统广泛应用于垃圾卫生填埋场,是防止渗沥液污染物渗漏扩散的重要屏障。在垃圾重力及沉降作用下易造成斜坡上复合衬垫系统拉伸破坏或沿其界面产生滑移而失稳。目前,由于缺乏对复合衬垫系统内部剪力传递机理的认识,仍难完全解决以上两大岩土工程问题。因此,设计并采用复合衬垫系统大型斜坡模型试验装置开展了其内部剪力传递机理的研究。该装置通过砂袋加载模拟填埋过程,采用手拉葫芦为核心的滑移控制系统再现了土工膜/土工织物界面的渐进累积破坏过程。试验结果表明：当外部剪力小于峰值强度时,界面不会进入残余状态,上覆的土工合成材料锚固端的拉力也非常小;但当外部剪力超过界面峰值强度时,界面就会逐渐进入残余状态,并最终达到残余强度。同时,薄弱界面上覆的土工合成材料锚固端的拉力也显著增加,严重时甚至被完全拉断。     

Shear strength of interfaces between unsaturated soils and composite geotextile with polyester yarn reinforcement

Composite geotextiles with polyester yarn reinforcement have been commonly used in combination with unsaturated soils. Both unsaturated and saturated shear strength of the interfaces were investigated between a composite geotextile and three major types of materials: silty sand (SM), low-plasticity silt (ML) and high-plasticity clay (CH) in a direct shear box. The interfaces were formed using two methods (A and B) to reflect the wide range of possible contact conditions in practice. Method A involved statically compacting the soil directly on top of the composite geotextile, while for Method B, the soil was statically compacted in a separate mold and later brought into contact with the composite geotextile. Type B interfaces required a larger displacement to mobilize the shear strength than Type A interfaces. The ultimate failure envelopes of SM and ML soils were similar to those of their interface shearing. Notably, the failure envelopes for the clay-geotextile interface of both types were higher than that of clay alone. The unsaturated soil-only shearing had a higher peak strength and tended to dilate more than saturated soil-only shearing, while unsaturated soil-interface shearing appeared to be more contractant than saturated interface shearing. The strength variations with suction for all tested soils and interface shearing were clearly non-linear. A new model that takes account of the condition of soil-geotextile contact intimacy is proposed for predicting the variation of interface strength with suction, based on the variation of the soil's apparent cohesion with suction and the geotextile-water retention curve.     

Stress-controlled direct shear testing of geosynthetic clay liners I: Apparatus development

The use of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) in waste containment applications can induce long-term normal and shear stresses as well as expose GCLs to elevated temperatures and non-standard hydration solutions. Considering the importance of GCL internal shear strength to the design and integrity of waste containment barrier systems, innovative laboratory testing methods are needed to assess shear behavior of GCLs. There were two main objectives of this study: (i) develop a stress-controlled direct shear apparatus capable of testing GCLs exposed to elevated temperatures and hydrated in non-standard solutions; and (ii) assess internal shear behavior of GCLs under varying experimental conditions (e.g., stress, temperature, solution). These two objectives were partitioned into a two-paper set, whereby Part I (this paper) focuses on the shear box design and Part II focuses on an assessment of shear behavior. The direct shear apparatus includes a reaction frame to mitigate specimen rotation that develops from an internal moment within needle-punched reinforced GCLs. Rapid-loading shear tests were conducted to assess functionality of the apparatus and document baseline shear behavior for a heat-treated and a non-heat treated needle-punched GCL with comparable peel strength. These two GCLs failed at comparable applied shear stress; however, the heat-treated GCL yielded lower shear deformation and failure occurred via rupture of reinforcement fiber anchors, whereas the non-heat treated GCL yielded larger shear deformation and failure via pullout of reinforcement fibers.