煤炭资源型地区产业能-水足迹效率及影响因素

我国煤炭资源型地区众多,但其资源环境等可持续发展问题形势严峻,如何针对能源和水这两种重点资源进行协同管理是解决这些问题的关键之一。基于区域不同产业能-水耦合视角,采用投入产出分析对2002-2012年山西省不同产业的能-水足迹效率进行评价,并采用结构分解分析能-水耦合的影响因素,主要结论有：（1）研究期间,山西省各产业能-水足迹都呈上升趋势,能源足迹的增加主要表现为各产业间接消耗能源的增加,而水足迹的增加主要表现为各产业直接消耗水资源的增加。（2）不同行业能-水足迹效率差异很大,足迹较大的产业其足迹效率都较低。尽管研究期间各产业能-水足迹效率呈现上升趋势,但大部分产业能-水足迹效率仍处于较低水平。（3）从各产业能源足迹效率和水足迹效率的耦合情况来看,各产业能-水足迹效率耦合状况趋于优化,逐步由低水足迹效率和中等能源足迹效率（W_lE_m）为主转变为中等水足迹效率和中等能源足迹效率（W_mE_m）为主,但与发达地区相比,仍然具有一定的差距。（4）从能-水足迹效率影响因素来看,各产业技术水平的提高是导致能-水足迹效率提高的主要动力,经济规模的持续扩大是各产业能-水足迹上升的主要原因,部门间的联系和地区经济结构对能-水足迹效率的影响也逐步增加。这些发现从理论上揭示了资源利用强度和效率对产业能-水消耗的影响机制,从实践上对资源型地区节能节水具有重要指导意义。     

基于投入产出方法的甘肃省水足迹及虚拟水贸易研究

随着社会化进程的加快,地处西北内陆的甘肃省正面临日益严峻的水资源短缺危机,社会经济发展受到一定程度的制约,水生态环境也呈现出恶化的趋势。水足迹是近年来提出的衡量人类活动对于水生态系统影响的指标,能够帮助决策者制定水资源管理及保护的政策,从而实现地区水资源的可持续利用。运用单区域投入产出方法计算并分析了甘肃省1997、2002和2007年第一产业、第二产业和第三产业部门的虚拟水强度、水足迹以及虚拟水贸易情况。结果显示:(1)甘肃省第一产业的虚拟水强度最高,但呈现出逐年下降的趋势,水足迹也因此有所下降;(2)虚拟水贸易方面,甘肃省以虚拟水净出口为主,尤其是第一产业,每年虚拟水净出口量约全省总水资源量的10%。建议甘肃省继续巩固已有的节水成果,调整产业结构,大力发展节水型产业和高新技术产业。同时建议适当调整贸易格局,合理控制虚拟水出口,以缓解当地水资源短缺危机,保障地区水安全与生态安全。     

Water Consumption Based on a Disaggregated Social Accounting Matrix of Huesca (Spain)

Making use of the social accounting matrix (SAM) of the Spanish province of Huesca in 2002, updated following Junius and Oosterhaven's GRAS method and work by Lenzen and colleagues, we have estimated the water footprint of the region. The water footprint is defined as the volume of water needed for the production of the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants plus the direct consumption in the households. We built an open Leontief model, which gives us the water embodied in the production of goods. The valuations concern the industrial, service, and domestic sectors’ water consumption, the embodied water imported from and exported to other countries, and the agrarian water use. This agrarian sector, clearly the sector that shows the greatest water consumption, is carefully examined, so it is disaggregated for the calculations into 31 irrigation land products, dry land, and 9 livestock classifications. As a consequence, the framework enables the observation of the relationships and flows of water taking place among all the sectors and activities in the economy. Finally, we also make use of the per capita water footprint estimations to get a clear picture of how the responsibility for water use is distributed once foreign trade is taken into account.     

Ecological energy accounting for the gambling sector: A case study in Macao

Macao is a population-dense society that depends heavily on exogenous natural resources. In parallel with an expanding gambling sector, tourism became the most important driving force in Macao's economy. Economic growth in Macao has now benefited from the gambling boom and associated tourism for more than two decades. Although traditional economic theory has been used to deal with the economics of the gambling sector, the materials and energy foundation for this sector has not been previously analyzed. This is an important omission from the literature, since the gambling sector provides gamblers with food, tickets, services, water, electricity, equipment, labor, and other services that consume large quantities of materials and energy. In this paper, emergy synthesis is introduced to analyze Macao's gambling sector in 2004. Macao's casinos provide a dense flow of services that favor gambling tourists, since the emergy/$ ratio (1.42 × 10¹² sej/$) for the sector is much lower than that for Macao as a whole (2.38 × 10¹² sej/$). The emergy imports by this sector totaled 78.1 × 10²⁰ sej, and its exports were 77.1 × 10²⁰ sej. The emergy of services therefore plays an important role in Macao's gambling sector, and the transformity of an employee in this sector (11.2 × 10¹⁶ sej/person) was much higher than that of a typical person in Macao (5.27 × 10¹⁶ sej/person).     

中国水生态足迹广度、深度评价及空间格局

运用生态足迹方法对水资源进行流量资本和存量资本区分,测算分析了中国31个省市1997—2014年的水生态足迹广度与深度。结果显示:(1)中国的水生态足迹广度受年际水资源量丰枯影响,总体呈波动趋势;各省市的水生态足迹广度存在着明显差异,南方地区水生态足迹广度普遍大于北方地区;(2)研究期内,中国的水生态足迹深度只有1998年为1,其余年份的水资源流量资本已不能满足人类生产生活的需求,需要消耗水资源存量资本;各省市之间水生态足迹深度相差较大,整体上北方高南方低,其中14个省份18年的平均水生态足迹深度为1,平均水生态足迹深度最高的地区是宁夏的308.12;(3)运用空间自相关方法对31个省市的水生态足迹广度和深度进行分析得出,中国省际水生态足迹广度与深度均存在明显的空间集聚现象。水生态足迹广度H-H集聚地区主要集中在中国南方地区,水生态足迹深度H-H集聚地区主要集中在中国北方地区。通过对全国水生态足迹广度与深度的测度分析为水生态足迹分析提供新的研究方法,同时也为区域水资源可持续利用提供理论依据。     

北京市水果消费的生态足迹距离研究

采用生态足迹距离指标方法体系,对2009年至2012年间北京市水果消费的生态足迹距离进行研究。结果表明4年间:跨区转移的生态承载力质量距离,由2009年的11.5×10~8t km逐年增加到了2012年的17.01×10~8t km,共增加了47.91%;生态足迹距离则相对稳定在886.66 km至1073.55 km之间;人均生态足迹距离,总体上由2009年的4.39×10~4km增加到2012年的5.55×104km,共增加了26.42%。从类别的视角,年均生态足迹距离最大的是香蕉(2072 km),最小的是苹果(476 km);年均跨区转移的生物承载力质量距离,最大的是西瓜(4978×10~8kg km),最小的是香蕉(518×10~8kg km);而4年平均人均生态足迹距离,最大的是西瓜(17.7×10~4km),最小的是香蕉(1.92×10~4km)。快速城市化阶段的北京,对外生态依赖范围也迅速扩大,并高于人口增加的速率。     

福建省灰水足迹时空变化及驱动因素

灰水足迹是稀释水污染物至达标需要的淡水体积,是评价水污染程度与水环境质量的重要方法,对灰水足迹进行核算与分析,可以促进福建省提高水环境质量,构建可持续的水生态环境。借鉴Hoekstra等提出的灰水足迹核算方法,对福建省及各地市2001-2017年的灰水足迹进行核算,对其时空变化特征进行评价并使用对数平均迪式指数分解法（Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index Method,LMDI）模型对灰水足迹变动的驱动因素进行分解。结果表明：a）总氮是决定灰水足迹总量的主要污染物,非点源污染是灰水足迹的最主要来源但占比由68.25%降至63.35%;b）福建省灰水足迹总量降低了9.58%,且各项指标都呈下降趋势,在空间上,灰水足迹总量及剩余灰水足迹东南多西北少,人均灰水足迹及灰水足迹强度东少西多;c）福建省灰水足迹变动的驱动因素中,经济因素是最大正向驱动因素,产生2932.96亿m³的贡献量,技术因素是最大负向驱动因素,产生-2630.31亿m³的贡献量。最后,针对福建省水污染问题提出建议：a）开展非点源污染防治专项;b）加快速度提高城镇生活污水处理水平;c）优化产业结构,提高灰水足迹效率;d）切实落实生态补偿制度,调动各市水环境保护积极性;e）加强环境监管力度,加大技术投入。     

The Water Withdrawal Footprint of Energy Supply to Cities

Water footprints traditionally estimate water lost as a result of evapotranspiration (or otherwise unavailable for downstream uses) associated with producing a certain good, and the same embodied in trade across regions is used to estimate regional and national water footprints. These footprints, however, do not address risk posed to city energy supplies characterized by insufficient streamflow to support energy production, such as cooling water intake (e.g., withdrawals) at thermoelectric power plants. Water withdrawal intensity factors for producing goods and services are being developed at the national scale, but lack sufficient spatial resolution to address these types of water‐energy challenges facing cities. To address this need, this article presents a water withdrawal footprint for energy supply (WWFES) to cities and places it in the context of other water footprints defined in the literature. Analysis of electricity use versus electricity generation in 43 U.S. cities highlights the need for developing WWFES to estimate risks to transboundary city energy supplies resulting from water constraints. The magnitude of the WWFES is computed for Denver, Colorado, and compared to the city's direct use of water to offer perspective. The baseline WWFES for Denver is found to be 66% as large as all direct water uses in the city combined (mean estimate). Minimum, mean, and maximum estimates are computed to demonstrate sensitivity of the WWFES to selection of water withdrawal intensity factors. Finally, scenario analysis explores the effect of energy technology and energy policy choices in shaping the future water footprint of cities.     

生态效率视角下旅游业生态福利及驱动因素——以常州市为例

经济效益最大化与环境影响最小化是绿色旅游与可持续发展的内在诉求。本文立足于生态效率模型,创新性地提出旅游业生态福利指数,据此分析1995—2017年常州市旅游业生态福利变化趋势及驱动效应,旨在为评价旅游产业绿色可持续发展能力提供新视角。研究发现:(1)1995年来常州市生态足迹呈现先增长后下降趋势,但旅游业各部门生态足迹均不断增长,游客人均资源消耗约为本地居民人均资源消耗的2.81—9.37倍,面临艰巨的节能减排压力。(2)1995年来常州市本底生态效率与旅游生态效率逐年提升,分别增加了37033元/hm~2和44226元/hm~2;同等资源消耗下,旅游业平均每单位产出高14409元/hm~2,但游客年均消耗的自然资源却为本地居民的5.78倍。(3)1995—2007年间常州市旅游生态福利升降波动频繁,2007年来呈以直线式地骤降,受规模效益影响,旅游业的绿色生态福利和高效性不断弱化,为全市的资源节约量下降了10.7倍。(4)迪氏对数指标分解法(Logarithmic Mean Disivia Index, LMDI)揭示规模效应、经济效应对旅游福利水平变化起到显著地负向驱动效应,效率效应、技术效应起到正向拉动作用。未来,常州市旅游业应以绿色发展为导向,走出"无烟产业"误区,转变经济增长模式,大力倡导节能减排工作,走资源利用精细化、可持续发展道路,最大限度提升旅游业福利效应。     

Sustainability of the water footprint of the Spanish pork industry

Around 92% of the humanity's footprint (WF) relates to the agricultural sector, and a considerable proportion of this is associated with animal farming. In Spain, the swine sector accounts for 11% of agricultural output in economic terms and makes substantial demands on freshwater resources. In this study we estimate the WF of the Spanish pig sector at an average 19.5 billion m³/yr (82% green, 8% blue, 10% grey) over the period 2001–08. During this period the WF increased by 23%, due to growing exports. About half the water needed to produce concentrate feed comes from Spain, with the remaining 50% embodied in imported feedstock products. When comparing the blue and grey WFs of feed production in the source regions with indicators of water scarcity and water pollution, we find that most of the feed produced in Spain, unlike that imported, comes from watersheds where freshwater resources are overexploited. The evaluation of the WF of four different pig production systems shows that pigs raised in extensive systems have the largest WF per tonne of live animal. However, water pollution is a particular problem in industrial systems given the high geographical concentration of animals. The swine sector is one of the largest consumers of natural resources in Spain and should, therefore, be an important focal point in agricultural, environmental and water policies.     

新疆区域水资源对产业生态系统与经济增长的动态关联——基于VAR模型

新疆正面临"五化同步"对水资源的需求不断增长与水资源开发利用过度的矛盾。水资源瓶颈制约已成为影响新疆经济可持续发展和长治久安的突出问题之一。运用VAR模型,通过ADF检验、脉冲响应函数和方差贡献度分解,对2000—2014年新疆耗水产业生态系统和经济增长的长期均衡关系进行实证分析。结果表明:(1)经济增长与总用水量、工业用水量和农业用水量之间均存在长期均衡关系;(2)经济发展对用水量产生负向冲击,工业用水量和农业用水量随着经济发展出现正向冲击效应。(3)新疆经济快速增长伴随着水资源的大力开发和过度利用。据此提出对策建议,通过实施严格的退地减水政策,明确用水总量控制和定额指标,加强跨流域调水工程建设,防止浪费等多途径维持新疆水资源可持续利用和耗水产业健康发展。     

The Inequality Footprints of Nations: A Novel Approach to Quantitative Accounting of Income Inequality

In this study we use economic input-output analysis to calculate the inequality footprint of nations. An inequality footprint shows the link that each country''s domestic economic activity has to income distribution elsewhere in the world. To this end we use employment and household income accounts for 187 countries and an historical time series dating back to 1990. Our results show that in 2010, most developed countries had an inequality footprint that was higher than their within-country inequality, meaning that in order to support domestic lifestyles, these countries source imports from more unequal economies. Amongst exceptions are the United States and United Kingdom, which placed them on a par with many developing countries. Russia has a high within-country inequality nevertheless it has the lowest inequality footprint in the world, which is because of its trade connections with the Commonwealth of Independent States and Europe. Our findings show that the commodities that are inequality-intensive, such as electronic components, chemicals, fertilizers, minerals, and agricultural products often originate in developing countries characterized by high levels of inequality. Consumption of these commodities may implicate within-country inequality in both developing and developed countries.     

城市能源利用碳足迹分析——以厦门市为例

城市能源利用碳足迹分析综合考虑直接与间接碳排放,对于深度分析碳排放的本质过程、制定科学全面的碳减排计划具有重要意义。以厦门市为研究案例,应用碳足迹的混合分析方法,对厦门市2009年能源利用碳足迹进行了分析,除了包括传统研究中的城市能源终端利用产生的直接碳排放,还计算了跨界交通和城市主要消耗物质的内含能引起的间接碳排放。研究结果表明:(1)城市边界内的工业、交通、商业等部门的能源消耗产生的直接碳排放(即层次1和层次2)只占到总碳足迹的64%,而一直被忽略的跨界交通和城市主要消耗物质的内含能引起的间接碳排放(层次3)占到36%;(2)在直接碳排放中,工业部门的碳排放贡献率最大,占到直接碳排放的55%,其中化工行业带来的碳排放占到工业部门的25%;(3)在间接碳排放中,跨界交通引起的碳排放占间接碳排放的27%,其中长途道路运输贡献率最大,占跨界交通碳排放的38%;主要材料内含能碳排放占间接碳排的73%,其中燃料的内含能碳排放占总内含能的份额最大,达51%。;(4)从人均碳足迹角度比较,厦门市人均碳足迹和丹佛市的人均直接碳排(层次1+层次2)分别为5.74 t CO2e/人、18.9 t CO2e/人,包含3个层次的人均碳足迹分别为9.01 tCO2e/人、25.3 t CO2e/人,其中跨界交通引起的碳排放均占总碳足迹的10%左右,主要材料的内含能引起的碳排放分别占到总碳足迹的26%、15%;通过国内外典型城市不同层次碳足迹比较可见厦门还是相对低碳的,但有个显著的特点是主要消耗物质的内含碳排放比例较高,这在一定程度上说明了发展中国家城市消耗更多的基础材料,进一步证明了传统核算中忽略的第3层次碳排放核算与管理的重要性。     

能值生态足迹模型的改进——以海南为例

通过对比总结现有能值生态足迹模型研究成果,从能值密度、能值生态承载力、能值生态指标分类和整合等方面分析了模型存在的问题,在此基础上,构建了消费端和供给端构建足迹账户体系,并提出能值生态足迹和能值生态承载力模型的改进和优化。利用改进模型,实证分析了2000—2016年海南生态经济系统的变化特征。结果表明:(1)能源账户和生物产品账户足迹大幅增加。污染账户和建设用地账户足迹状态稳定。(2)生产承载力随着技术进步不断提高,而环境承载力随着人类对环境资源的占用强度增加不断下降。(3)海南生态环境整体表现为生态盈余,但污染账户、能源账户盈余缩减,2011年能源账户开始出现生态赤字。通过足迹账户的构建,能够更清晰地追踪各账户和各类土地能值生态足迹、能值生态承载力以及能值生态盈余/赤字产生的变化,能值生态足迹模型改进之后能够更客观反映区域生态经济系统状况,为地区有针对性开展环境管理和保护提供依据。     

Methodological proposal to assess the water footprint accounting of direct water use at an urban level: A case study of the Municipality of Vicenza

Climate change, world population growth and industrialization have placed considerable stress on the local availability of water resources. Considering that most of the world's population currently resides in cities, this issue has particular relevance in an urban environment. One of the methods that is recognized to support better water management is water footprint accounting. However, due to the requirement of large amounts of data and their limited availability, applications of this method at an urban scale use national or regional water use data. The goal of this study is to develop a methodological proposal to assess the water footprint accounting of direct water use at an urban level to support the local management of water resources by using local data, by adopting a bottom-up approach and by verifying its applicability in a real case study. The water footprint accounting approach was modified by adopting a modular approach in the definition of boundaries and by adapting the blue, green and gray water footprint accounting formulations. The proposed method was successfully tested in the municipality of Vicenza (north east Italy) and provided interesting responses in terms of water management. Herein, we also discuss the latest developments in impact assessments related to water based on a life cycle assessment, which should be used as a framework for the future development of the model that is presented.     

International inequality of environmental pressures: Decomposition and comparative analysis

Natural resource scarcity is no longer merely a remote possibility and governments increasingly seek information about the global distribution of resource use and related environmental pressures. This paper presents an international distributional analysis of natural resource use indicators. These encompass both territorial (national production) and footprint (national consumption) indicators for land-related pressures (human appropriation of net primary production, HANPP, and embodied HANPP), for material use (domestic material extraction and consumption and material footprint), and for carbon emissions (territorial carbon emissions and carbon footprints). Our main question is “What, both from a territorial and a footprint perspective, are the main driving factors of international environmental inequality?”. We show that, for the environmental indicators we studied, inequality tends to be higher for footprint indicators than for territorial ones. The exception is land use intensity (as measured by HANPP), for which geographical drivers mainly determine the distribution pattern. The international distribution of material consumption is mainly a result of economic drivers whereas, for domestic extraction, demographic drivers can explain almost half of the distribution pattern. Finally, carbon emissions are the environmental pressure that shows the highest international inequality because of the larger contribution of economic drivers.     

Labor Embodied in Trade

Global production chains carry environmental and socioeconomic impacts embodied in each traded good and service. Even though labor and energy productivities tend to be higher for domestic production in high‐income countries than those in emerging economies, this difference is significantly reduced for consumption, when including imported products to satisfy national demand. The analysis of socioeconomic and environmental aspects embodied in consumption can shed a light on the real level of productivity of an economy, as well as the effects of rising imports and offshoring. This research introduces a consumption‐based metric for productivity, in which we evaluate the loss of productivity of developed nations resulting from imports from less‐developed economies and offshoring of labor‐intensive production. We measure the labor, energy, and greenhouse gas emissions footprints in the European Union's trade with the rest of the world through a multiregional input‐output model. We confirm that the labor footprint of European imports is significantly higher than the one of exports, mainly from low‐skilled, labor‐intensive primary sectors. A high share of labor embodied in exports is commonly associated with low energy productivities in domestic industries. Hence, this reconfirms that the offshoring of production to cheaper and low‐skilled, labor‐abundant countries offsets, or even reverts, energy efficiency gains and climate‐change mitigation actions in developed countries.     

Water Footprint of Cereals and Vegetables for the Beijing Market

Beijing is situated in water‐scarce northern China, where there is a history of policies aimed at constraining local agricultural water use to meet the increasing urban water demand. This has led to a change in local crop production and subsequent effects in terms of the importation of cereals and vegetables grown in other parts of China. The dilemma is that local policies designed to improve Beijing's water resources situation may have the unintended consequence of increasing water stress in other regions. In this article, life cycle assessment approaches were used to model both consumptive and degradative water use for the major cereals and vegetables consumed in Beijing, enabling comparison of local and imported supplies. In the Beijing region, cropping cereals rather than intensive vegetables in greenhouses could reduce local blue water consumption by 7,216 cubic meters per hectare per year (m³ ha^?1 yr^?1) and nitrogen pollution by 45 kg ha^?1 yr^?1. However, depending on how the local food shortfall is balanced by imported food, shifts in cropping pattern in Beijing have the potential to cause either an improvement or exacerbation of the nationwide water stress situation (e.g., ?42% to 4% for water scarcity footprint). As such, local policy making regarding agricultural land and water use needs to consider the wider food production context. This situation in Beijing is likely to be representative of the challenge facing many of the world's large and mega‐sized cities, where a sustainable means of increasing food supply must be found.     

Environmental and resource burdens associated with world biofuel production out to 2050: footprint components from carbon emissions and land use to waste arisings and water consumption

Environmental or ‘ecological’ footprints have been widely used in recent years as indicators of resource consumption and waste absorption presented in terms of biologically productive land area [in global hectares (gha)] required per capita with prevailing technology. In contrast, ‘carbon footprints’ are the amount of carbon (or carbon dioxide equivalent) emissions for such activities in units of mass or weight (like kilograms per functional unit), but can be translated into a component of the environmental footprint (on a gha basis). The carbon and environmental footprints associated with the world production of liquid biofuels have been computed for the period 2010–2050. Estimates of future global biofuel production were adopted from the 2011 International Energy Agency (IEA) ‘technology roadmap’ for transport biofuels. This suggests that, although first generation biofuels will dominate the market up to 2020, advanced or second generation biofuels might constitute some 75% of biofuel production by 2050. The overall environmental footprint was estimated to be 0.29 billion (bn) gha in 2010 and is likely to grow to around 2.57 bn gha by 2050. It was then disaggregated into various components: bioproductive land, built land, carbon emissions, embodied energy, materials and waste, transport, and water consumption. This component‐based approach has enabled the examination of the Manufactured and Natural Capital elements of the ‘four capitals’ model of sustainability quite broadly, along with specific issues (such as the linkages associated with the so‐called energy–land–water nexus). Bioproductive land use was found to exhibit the largest footprint component (a 48% share in 2050), followed by the carbon footprint (23%), embodied energy (16%), and then the water footprint (9%). Footprint components related to built land, transport and waste arisings were all found to account for an insignificant proportion to the overall environmental footprint, together amounting to only about 2%     

The energy embodied in the first and second industrial revolutions

Understanding the nature of energy embodied in economies is essential to assessing their potential to grow or transform sustainably. As the first country to undergo industrialization, study of the United Kingdom during the Industrial Revolution is particularly important for understanding transformational processes. Historical accounts describe how exploitation of Britain's coal reserves supported the evolution of steel production, railways, and other industries; yet reconstructions of the UK's eighteenth/nineteenth century economy have found relatively small contributions from coal mining to economic growth. Here, economic input‐output models for 1841 and 1907 are used to calculate the coal embodied in capital investment, consumption, and exports. Most of the coal was embodied in consumption in 1841, with coal embodied in exports growing particularly fast by 1907. The coal embodied in capital was smaller, but the energy intensity of investment was about four times larger than the energy intensity of consumption. The coal embodied in building the capital stock, much of it used for production of materials such as iron, steel, and bricks, was important for economic growth and transformation. Using historical proxy data, it is estimated that ～1.1 billion imperial tons of coal (34,000 PJ) were used to build the UK's capital assets between 1760 and 1913. The conceptual model developed here helps to explain the role of energy in economic growth and is important to contemporary sustainable development. This article met the requirements for a gold – gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges .