Rheological properties of concentrated skim milk: importance of soluble minerals in the changes in viscosity during storage

Properties of condensed milks prior to spray drying dictate to a large extent the functionality of the resulting milk powder. Rheological properties of concentrated skim milk, with total solids content of 45% but different mineral content, were studied as a function of shear rate and storage time at 50 degrees C. These milks are proposed as a model to study the effects of minerals on rheology and age gellation of condensed milk prior to drying. During storage of the concentrated milk, the apparent viscosity, particularly after 4 h, increased markedly at all shear rates studied. The yield stress also increased steeply after 4 h of storage at 50 degrees C. The changes in apparent viscosity of concentrated milk stored for up to 4 h were largely reversible under high shear, but irreversible in samples stored for longer time. The appearance of yield stress suggested the presence of reversible flocculation arising from weak attraction between casein micelles, with a transition from reversible to irreversible aggregation during storage. Particle size analysis confirmed irreversible aggregation and fusion of casein micelles during storage. Gradual reduction of mineral content of concentrated milks resulted in a marked decrease in the apparent viscosity and casein micelle aggregation during storage, while addition of minerals to milk had the opposite effect. The results demonstrated that the soluble mineral content is very important in controlling the storage-induced changes in the rheology of concentrated milks.     

Influence of milk protein concentrates with modified calcium content on enteral dairy beverage formulations: Storage stability

Control of calcium-mediated storage defects, such as age gelation and sedimentation, were evaluated in enteral high-protein dairy beverages during storage. To investigate the effects of reduced-calcium ingredients on storage stability, 2 batches each of milk protein concentrates (MPC) with 3 levels of calcium content were acquired [control, 20% calcium-reduced (MPC-20), and 30% calcium-reduced (MPC-30)]. Control and calcium-reduced MPC were used to formulate 8% (wt/wt) protein enteral dairy beverages. The formulation also consisted of other ingredients, such as gums, maltodextrin, potassium citrate, and sucrose. The pH-adjusted formulation was divided into 2 parts, one with 0.15% sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) and the other with 0% SHMP. The formulations were homogenized and retort sterilized at 121°C for 15 min. The retort-sterilized beverages were stored at room temperature for up to 90 d and particle size and apparent viscosity were measured on d 0, 7, 30, 60, and 90. Beverages formulated using control MPC with 0 and 0.15% SHMP exhibited sedimentation, causing a decrease in apparent viscosity by approximately 10 cP and clear phase separation by d 90. The MPC-20 beverages with 0% SHMP exhibited stable particle size and apparent viscosities during storage. In the presence of 0.15% SHMP, particle size increased rapidly by 40 nm on d 90, implying the start of progressive gelation. On the other hand, highest apparent viscosities leading to gelation were observed in MPC-30 beverages at both concentrations of SHMP studied. These results suggested that beverages formulated with MPC-20 and 0% SHMP would have better storage stability by maintaining lower apparent viscosities. Further reduction of calcium using MPC-30 resulted in rapid gelation of beverages during storage.     

A Method for Predicting Gelation of Aseptically Packaged Steam Injected UHT Milk

The gelation of sterile UHT steam injected dairy products was investigated by determining the time of gelation onset and the gelation rate. Fat percentages of the products were 0.5, 3.25, and 10.5. Each product was processed at 411°K for 20.3 sec, 416°K for 6.9 and 20.3 sec and 422°K for 3.4, 6.9, and 20.3 sec. Products were stored at 277 and 297°K. Viscosity measurements were taken with four commercial viscometer assemblies and viscosity data compiled at a shear rate of 1 sec^-1. Velocity rate constants (k) were determined using regression analysis. Prediction equations were formulated for the time of gelation onset and the rate of gelation depending on the severity of the thermal treatment, percent fat and storage temperature.     

温度对SiO2/PEG基剪切增稠液流变性能的影响

剪切增稠液是一种新型率敏智能材料。为了探究环境温度变化对其剪切增稠机制的影响,通过对-10℃~35℃条件下SiO2/PEG 200基剪切增稠液的稳态和动态流变性能进行测试,得到如下结论:随着环境温度的降低,SiO2/PEG 200悬浮液体系的最大黏度值从5.5 Pa·s提高至250 Pa·s,临界剪切速率从753 s-1降低至7.34 s-1,剪切增稠率提高208.33%;体系的临界剪切应变从2300%降低至370%,储能模量、损失模量随环境温度的降低分别增长了160倍和36倍。因环境温度降低引起的PEG 200黏度提高和SiO2纳米颗粒布朗运动减弱是体系剪切增稠现象增强、剪切增稠响应更灵敏的主要原因。     

[AMIM]Cl为溶剂的纤维素溶液流变性能

 以离子液体氯化1-烯丙基-3-甲基咪唑（[AMIM]Cl）为纤维素溶剂,制备3种不同质量分数的纤维素溶液,测定纤维素溶液在不同条件下的静态及动态流变性能,分析实验数据,计算溶液的黏流活化能 及结构黏度指数 。静态流变结果表明,实验范围内的纤维素溶液均为假塑性流体,表观黏度、剪切应力、结构黏度指数均随温度升高而下降,当温度达到100℃,溶液表观黏度趋于恒定。动态流变结果表明：该体系的损耗模量和储能模量随溶液质量分数的增加而增大,随温度的升高而减小;损耗模量和储能模量的曲线都有1个交点,交点前粘性效应占优,交点后弹性效应占优。     

Rheology of the gel formed in the California Mastitis Test

The California Mastitis Test has previously been adapted for use in an inline, cow-side sensor and relies on the fact that the viscosity of the gel formed during the test is proportional to the somatic cell concentration. In this paper, the use of capillary and rotational viscometry was compared in light of the expected rheology of the gel formed during the test. It was found that the gel is non-Newtonian, but the initial phase of viscosity increase was not due to shear dependence, but rather due to the gelation reaction. The maximum apparent viscosity of the gel was shear dependent while the time it took to reach the maximum was not truly shear dependent, but was rather dependent on the degree of mixing during gelation. This was confirmed by introducing a delay time prior to viscosity measurement, in both capillary and rotational viscometry. It was found that by mixing the reagent and infected milk, then delaying viscosity measurement for 30 s, shortened the time it took to reach maximum viscosity by more than 60 s. The maximum apparent viscosity, however, was unaffected. It was found that capillary viscometry worked well to correlate relative viscosity with somatic cell count, but that it was sensitive to the reagent concentration. It can therefore be deduced that the rheology of the gel is complicated not only by it being non-Newtonian, but also by the strong dependence on test conditions. These make designing a successful sensor much more challenging.     

Age Gelation,Sedimentation, and Creaming in UHT Milk: A Review

Demand for ultra‐high‐temperature (UHT) milk and milk protein‐based beverages is growing. UHT milk is microbiologically stable. However, on storage, a number of chemical and physical changes occur and these can reduce the quality of the milk. These changes can be sufficiently undesirable so as to limit acceptance or shelf life of the milk. The most severe changes in UHT milk during storage are age gelation, with an irreversible three‐dimensional protein network forming throughout, excessive sedimentation with a compact layer of protein‐enriched material forming rapidly at the bottom of the pack, and creaming with excessive fat accumulating at the top. For age gelation, it is known that at least two mechanisms can lead to gelation during storage. One mechanism involves proteolytic degradation of the proteins through heat‐stable indigenous or exogenous enzymes, destabilizing milk and ultimately forming a gel. The other mechanism is referred to as a physico‐chemical mechanism. Several factors are known to affect the physico‐chemical age gelation, such as milk/protein concentration, heat load during processing (direct compared with indirect UHT processes), and milk composition. Similar factors to age gelation are known to affect sedimentation. There are relatively few studies on the creaming of UHT milk during storage, suggesting that this defect is less common or less detrimental compared with gelation and sedimentation. This review focuses on the current state of knowledge of age gelation, sedimentation, and creaming of UHT milks during storage, providing a critical evaluation of the available literature and, based on this, mechanisms for age gelation and sedimentation are proposed.     

Ovalbumin thermal Gelation Prediction by Application of Temperature-Time History

A model for characterizing changes in viscosity of soy protein during extrusion was adapted to predict apparent viscosity ratio of gelling ovalbumin. For ovalbumin (87% purity) the temperature time histories of 3,5, and 7% gel formation were determined at 85, 90 and 95°C. A back-extrusion method was used to determine apparent viscosity ratios during gelation. Activation energy for denaturation/gelation was estimated at 159 kJ/mol. The model parameter a (degree of molecular entanglement) was 0.75, 0.75, and 1.0 for 3, 5, and 7% gels, respectively. Reaction rate constants were similar for samples with different protein concentrations. Maximum apparent viscosity ratio increased as protein concentrations increased. The mathematical model was verified by determining apparent viscosity ratios at 86 and 93°C and water holding at 90°C, resulting in R²-0.93. This model may be useful in predicting ovalbumin thermal gelation apparent viscosity ratios.     

魔芋不可逆凝胶的流变学性质

对魔芋不可逆凝胶的流变学特性进行研究,考察不同品种魔芋粉、魔芋粉添加量、加热温度以及胶凝剂的种类和添加量对魔芋不可逆凝胶强度的影响。通过动态黏弹性实验测定魔芋不可逆凝胶的各项流变学参数。结果表明：花魔芋、白魔芋、珠芽魔芋干法加工（干粉）和花魔芋湿法加工（湿粉）的4 种魔芋粉形成的凝胶中,白魔芋干粉品质最佳。魔芋不可逆凝胶化过程中,随着魔芋粉添加量的增大,凝胶化时间缩短,储能模量的平台值也随之增大,升高温度也能加快魔芋粉凝胶化的速率。在温度为80 ℃、pH值为11～13之间,体系的储能模量达到最大值,即可形成品质较好的凝胶。当凝胶剂Na2CO3、Ca(OH)2、Na3PO4添加量分别为0.6%、0.5%、1.0%时,凝胶体系储能模量达到最大值,与损耗模量差值相应也最大,最利于凝胶的形成,且形成凝胶体系所需的时间短。     

Effect of sodium caseinate on the stability of cream liqueurs

The apparent viscosity of cream liqueurs prepared with different commercial sodium caseinates increased on storage at 45°C at rates and to extents that were dependent on which caseinate was used in the cream liqueur preparation. Increases in the apparent viscosity of fat free and fat free, micellar casein and whey protein free liqueurs indicated that differences in the caseinate s per se, rather than differences in interfacial absorption of the caseinates or the inclusion of micellar casein and whey proteins with the cream serum, caused the differences in increases in the apparent viscosity of cream liqueurs on storage at 45°C. No significant correlation was found between the calcium content of the caseinates and increases in the apparent viscosity of the liqueur systems on storage at 45°C. Addition of 2-mercaptoethanol to liqueurs after manufacture caused large increases in apparent viscosity, indicating that sulphydryl interactions may be important. Addition of NaCl to cream liqueurs resulted in an immediate increase in apparent viscosity, and on storage at 45°C for seven days, the liqueurs gelled, developed a high apparent viscosity or underwent phase separation, depending on which caseinate was used in the manufacture of the cream liqueur. Thus changes in the apparent viscosity of cream liqueurs on storage at 45°C are caseinate dependent and the results presented suggest that electrostatic and sulphydryl interactions may be involved in these changes.     

RHEOLOGICAL MODELING OF UHT MILK GELS USING A CONE AND PLATE CREEP-RELAXATION TEST1

The gelation of UHT steam injected dairy products was investigated by determining rheological model constants. Fat percentages of the products were 0.5, 3.25 and 10.5. Each product was processed at 143 °C for 6.9 s and stored at 24 °C. At four week intervals, from 55 to 85 weeks storage, cone and plate creep-relaxation data was collected Three element rheological models were developed for each test date. Empirical relationships were derived relating the elastic and viscous constants to storage time for each fat content. The strongest parameter for all samples was the series elastic constant. The viscous constant was next with the Kelvin elastic constant being much weaker. All constants for all samples increased over storage time as gelling progressed (apparent viscosity increased). The lower the percent fat, the sooner gelling started and the faster the rate. The gelation of UHT milk was examined and found to depend heavily on the percent fat.     

Chemical Modification of Proteins Part 6. Further Studies on Gelation of Casein after Modification by Dialdehyde Starch

The physical and chemical changes in casein during the gelation owing to the chemical modification by dialdehyde starch (DAS) in 8–10% solution were studied using electron-microscopy, measuring the mechanical properties (shear deformation), turbidimetric titration, and determination of amino groups. The gelation which proceeds during a storage time of 2 weeks is accomplished by the formation of a super-molecular network structure. Depending on the conditions of modification (pH, percentage of DAS, protein concentration) a more or less dense network is formed. An increase of pH (in the range of pH 6,3–9,7) leads to an increase of gelation speed, which favours the formation of irregular network structures. The denser the network formed the smaller is the shear deformation measured by the device of Tolstoi. During the storage of the gels the plastic component of compliance decreases to a greater amount than the elastic one. Therefore the relative amount of elastic component increases. During the reaction with DAS the maximum of turbidity of the protein (solubility minimum) shifted to lower pH owing to a blockage of positively charged groups. On the contrary to the changes measured by physical methods, this shift is complete soon after a 1 day storage. Similarly the blockage of amino groups is finished in the most cases this time too.     

SMALL AMPLITUDE OSCILLATORY SHEAR STUDIES ON MOZZARELLA CHEESE PART II. RELAXATION SPECTRUM

The frequency dispersion of dynamic mechanical spectra of a low-moisture, part-skim and a low-fat, part-skim Mozzarella cheese are presented. Small amplitude oscillatory shear measurements within the linear viscoelastic range (0.05% strain) were made over 12 weeks of storage. Proteolysis during storage led to softening of the cheeses and thus decreases in storage (G';) and loss (G") moduli. Master curves (at a reference temperature of40C) were obtained by shifting the temperature-dependent frequency dispersion of storage modulus. There was no significant change in G' after 4 weeks of aging. The variation of relaxation time and viscosity spectrum of both cheeses with age were obtained from the master curves using the generalized Maxwell model and nonlinear regression analysis. With maturation the viscosity distribution of corresponding Maxwell elements shifted towards smaller values, indicating that cheeses become softer and melt more easily.     

Thickening of molten white chocolates during storage

When white chocolates are kept molten in storage tanks, problems can arise due to uncontrolled thickening and solidifying of the chocolate mass. The thickening of molten white chocolate was simulated on a laboratory scale using a rotational rheometer under static conditions, interrupted by short shear periods to measure the increasing viscosity. Several chocolates having different dairy components and fat contents were investigated for their tendency to thicken. In addition, sorption isotherms for white chocolates were obtained using Dynamic Vapour Sorption at different temperatures. The sorption isotherms showed the presence of amorphous lactose in all the chocolates that were manufactured from milk powders. Moisture that is released during the crystallisation of amorphous lactose causes stickiness and agglomeration of the neighbouring particles and starts the thickening process. This process is highly temperature-dependent. On elevating the temperature the lactose crystallisation occurs at lower relative humidities. In order to reduce the tendency of white chocolate to thicken, a high free fat level should be maintained, based on a high total fat content and on the use of high free fat milk powders, preferably roller-dried whole milk powders or the combination of skimmed milk powder and anhydrous milk fat.     

Exposure to Air Accelerates the Gelation of Gelatin: Steady and Dynamic Shear Rheological Characterization to See the Effect of Air on the Strength of Gelatin Gel

In the current study, the effect of air exposure to the gelatin solution on improvement of gel structure was investigated in terms of the steady and dynamic shear rheological properties. Prepared gelation solution (5% w/v) was covered to prevent air incorporation and it was subjected to 5 h gelatin and rheological analyses were carried out for the comparison of non-covered ones. It was observed that the preventing of air into the gelatin solution affected the rheological parameters. Apparent viscosity and complex viscosity values of samples increased during gelation and these values were measured to be tremendously high (1.894 and 8.346 Pa s, respectively) in non-covered gelatin solution while they were 0.474 and 1.611 Pa s in covered samples after 5 h gelation, respectively. Similarly, storage modulus (G′) of samples increased with the increase in gelation time and it was recorded to be 52.203 Pa in gelatin solution exposed to air while it was 9.848 Pa in gelatin solution covered to prevent air incorporation. These results showed importance of air in gelatin solution to the food industry using gelatin in food formulation for the structure of processed foods.     

Thickening of molten white chocolates during storage

When white chocolates are kept molten in storage tanks, problems can arise due to uncontrolled thickening and solidifying of the chocolate mass. The thickening of molten white chocolate was simulated on a laboratory scale using a rotational rheometer under static conditions, interrupted by short shear periods to measure the increasing viscosity. Several chocolates having different dairy components and fat contents were investigated for their tendency to thicken. In addition, sorption isotherms for white chocolates were obtained using dynamic vapour sorption at different temperatures. The sorption isotherms showed the presence of amorphous lactose in all the chocolates that were manufactured from milk powders. Moisture that is released during the crystallization of amorphous lactose causes stickiness and agglomeration of the neighbouring particles and starts the thickening process. This process is highly temperature-dependent. On elevating the temperature the lactose crystallization occurs at lower relative humidities. In order to reduce the tendency of white chocolate to thicken, a high free-fat level should be maintained, based on a high total fat content and on the use of high free-fat milk powders, preferably roller-dried whole milk powders or the combination of skimmed milk powder and anhydrous milk fat.     

鲜湿面条的煮面时间及其与面粉糊化特性的关系

通过对不同类型小麦品种鲜湿面条的煮面时间及其与面粉品质的关系研究,结果表明:随着煮面时间的延长,面条评分呈先上升后下降的趋势,不同类型小麦品种的面条评分分别在不同煮制时间达到最大值;同时,随着煮制时间的延长,糯小麦面粉开始糊化温度逐渐下降,而黑小麦76、豫麦34、豫麦49、豫麦50呈先上升后下降的趋势,且均在一定时间后保持平缓的趋势。最佳煮面时间和面粉品质的相关分析表明,最佳煮面时间和直链淀粉含量、最终粘度、反弹值、糊化温度呈显著正相关,和稀懈值呈显著负相关;糊化特性能较好的预测最佳煮面时间。同时,评委感官评价测得的最佳煮面时间和糊化温度测定法有极显著相关性。     

Microrheology: new methods to approach the functional properties of food

Three configurations have been developed to improve the understanding of structural element interactions in food material during deformation. The three configurations combine an inverted confocal scanning laser microscope (CSLM) and a cell that can apply to the sample a specific deformation: continuous shear, linear oscillatory shear and biaxial extension (compression).In the continuous shear and oscillatory shear configurations (OSCs), a zero-velocity plane is created in the sample by moving two plates in opposite direction, maintaining stable observation conditions of the structural behaviour under deformation. The OSC allows simultaneous application of CSLM and diffusing wave spectroscopy, a multiple light scattering technique. The third configuration (compression configuration) allows observation at a stagnation point during rheometric measurements. The configurations accept semi-liquid products (dressing, sauces, dairy products, etc.) for investigations in area such as aggregation, gelation, interactions at interface, coalescence, break-up.     

菠萝蜜多糖流变学特性研究

本文研究了菠萝蜜多糖(Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Pulp Polysaccharide, JFP-Ps)的流变学特性,分析浓度、剪切速率、温度、加热时间、pH、冻融变化和盐离子等因素对JFP-Ps溶液的表观粘度和粘弹性的影响。结果表明,JFP-Ps溶液的表观粘度与浓度呈正相关;JFP-Ps溶液的表观粘度与剪切速率呈负相关,出现剪切稀释的现象,为“非牛顿流体”,呈现假塑性行为;JFP-Ps溶液表观粘度与温度呈负相关;随加热时间的延长,JFP-Ps的表观粘度先上升后下降;JFP-Ps溶液在pH4~10范围内表观粘度值变化不大;冻融变化可使JFP-Ps溶液表观粘度增大;5%NaCl溶液使JFP-Ps溶液的表观粘度减小,5% KCl溶液使JFP-Ps溶液的表观粘度增大;在粘弹性测试中,JFP-Ps的储能G′和损能G″随着频率的增大而增大,且G′始终高于G″,另外,JFP-Ps溶液的储能模量G'和损耗模量G'随着溶液浓度的增大而上升,呈现凝胶性质。研究结果可为菠萝蜜果肉多糖在食品工业中的应用提供一定的理论借鉴。     

Viscosity reduction in concentrated protein solutions by hydrodynamic cavitation

Controlling viscosity of concentrated protein solutions is an integral part of dairy powder production. Hydrodynamic cavitation has been suggested as a new processing tool for reducing the viscosity of concentrates prior to spray drying. The aim of this study was to evaluate the viscosity reduction of whey protein concentrate as result of hydrodynamic cavitation. A whey protein concentrate (31% dry matter) was subjected to different hydrodynamic cavitation treatments and the viscosity was monitored during 14 days of storage, denaturation enthalpy was evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry and particle size by dynamic light scattering. Results showed that hydrodynamic cavitation treatment decreased viscosity by 7–8%, and this effect remained constant during the 14 days of storage. Based on the analysis of particle size distribution, the viscosity reduction was suggested to be linked to a reduction in the presence of large particles, possibly due to disruption of aggregates.