历史街区的保护及规划

近年来历史文化名城中的历史街区受到了严重破坏,城市规划领导和设计部门对历史街区的错误理解导致了一些错误做法。做好历史街区的保护和规划的关键,是提高对历史街区的认识,认真学习、研究保护规划的原理和方法。     

Vernacular Culture and Urban Economic Development: Thinking Outside the (Big) Box

Problem: This article addresses the increasing homogeneity of urban commercial areas and the loss of local culture associated with this trend. It seeks to identify strategies that build effectively on vernacular culture as an asset in neighborhood development.

Purpose: We aim to identify tools that advance the cultural preservation approach to urban economic development and to describe instances in which planners and neighborhood groups have applied these tools successfully.

Methods: We completed a wide-ranging literature review to identify the characteristics of places that have employed cultural preservation approaches and conducted six case studies involving 43 interviews in five cities.

Results and conclusions: Our interviews and case studies showed us that there are at least three types of anchors in neighborhoods with strong vernacular culture: 1) markets; 2) ethnic areas and heritage sites; 3) and arts-and-culture venues and districts. Although the balance between preservation and development will be different in each place, we did cull some widely applicable lessons learned while conducting our fieldwork: a) involve residents; b) find assets in local needs; c) transfer lessons rather than replicating others' work; d) create opportunities for ownership; e) if it doesn't exist, invent it; and f) balance culture and commerce. Our analysis also suggests that a neighborhood wishing to pursue a neighborhood development strategy based on vernacular culture should have at least one of the anchors listed above and strong, community-based organizations.

Takeaway for practice: We argue that it is both possible and preferable to advance an urban economic development strategy based on the local cultural assets that exist in urban neighborhoods. Our research illustrates different paths that places have taken to advance this kind of strategy and provides several ways for local planners and policymakers to integrate the maintenance of vernacular culture into their larger economic development plans.

Research support: Our research was supported by the Fannie Mae Foundation.     

Club Goods and Local Government

Problem: Private approaches to urban service provision are becoming more popular. Some argue these approaches are more efficient and more democratic than government provision because they are voluntary. While these club approaches can shift the burden of infrastructure finance to direct groups of users, they can also fragment urban service delivery and justify unevenness in service quality across the city.

Purpose: This article explores examples of club goods, that is, common interest developments (CIDS) for housing, business improvement districts (BIDs) for commercial areas, and economic development zones (EDZs) for commercial and industrial areas, and assesses their implications for local government. Emphasis is given to how clubs internalize benefits to members of the club but shed externalities onto the broader local government system. A critical governance concern is the impact on the long-term ability of local government to coordinate across disparate elements and interests in the community.

Methods: I discuss three types of clubs ranging from totally private common interest developments (home owners associations), to partially private business improvement districts, to totally public economic development zones. These club types are analyzed in terms of economic benefits, externalities, governance structure, and broader concerns with equity and sustainability.

Results and conclusions: Club good approaches to urban infrastructure delivery enhance private investment and reduce costs to cities, but they also shed externalities onto the broader city. Although these clubs are often private associations, this article shows how they are critically supported by government, beyond the property rights requirement assumed by most theorists. A further concern is that club approaches may undermine support for equity and redistribution at the broader city level.

Takeaway for practice: Local governments are under pressure to provide public goods efficiently and engage private voluntary approaches whenever possible. The efficiency and popularity of club approaches derives in part from their ability to capture the benefits of increased investment for internal benefit. However, local government managers also must manage diversity and build public support for investment to ensure equity across the urban territory. Balancing the benefits of club goods with the need for broader urban integration is a key challenge for planners and urban managers.

Research support: None.     

Historic Infrastructure Left Behind: Should Urban Planners Protect Streets and Blocks?

`Abstract

The disappearance of historic buildings can tear at the emotions of neighbors and advocates, yet the disruption of a historic urban plan is rarely noted or mourned and does not receive the attention from planners that it deserves. Just as they stay aware of important buildings, preservationists and planners should take up the street and lot patterns as a cause to preserve because it provides a protective infrastructure for historic character and buildings. The urban plan, laid down as the place was founded, is not only an important historic resource in its own right but also a framework for change and a safeguard for the character of a place and its historic buildings.     

Historic preservation’s impact on job creation,property values,and environmental sustainability

This study examines the impacts of historic preservation on jobs, property values, and environmentalism in Kentucky and its largest city, Louisville. Kentucky is a national leader in preservation, ranking first in the White House’s Preserve America initiative with 73 recognized communities. Kentucky is an ideal place to study historic preservation and environmentalism. Tax incentive programs have been an effective tool for creating positive changes in historic areas. Historic preservation results in more job creation than most other public investments. In the presence of escalating gas prices and assorted environmental practices, it is shown how neighborhoods containing historic districts have higher increases in median neighborhood housing values than undesignated neighborhoods. This paper also demonstrates the link between environmentalism and historic preservation. Residents of historic urban neighborhoods exhibit more environmentally friendly behavior.     

Managing change: Seattle’s 21st century urban renaissance

ABSTRACT

Evolution of the urban planning and historic preservation disciplines has resulted in an “uneasy alliance” in practice, one further complicated by the back-to-the-city movement and increased development pressure in older urban neighbourhoods. In Seattle, as in other U.S. cities, the pace, intensity and scale of redevelopment has caused dramatic spatial and social transformations. Although research has shown that older built fabric provides economic and social benefit for cities, neither regulations created by planners for guiding redevelopment nor strategies created by preservationists for retaining urban heritage have been successful in reconciling these different, yet interconnected, sets of values. We engage three Seattle neighbourhood case studies to clarify and evaluate policies, programs and strategies used by planners and preservationists for reimagining neighbourhood transformations. This work suggests a need for more creative, integrative collaboration between the two fields to simultaneously engage – and reconcile – social and economic tensions caused by urban redevelopment.     

Including the Excluded? Changing the Understandings of Ethnicity in Contemporary English Planning

The inclusion of ethnic and racial groups through participation is a key concern for planners, but far too little attention has been given to the way that groups become identified. Ethnic identity is presumed to be self-evident. Drawing on the political theory of Young and Gilroy the paper questions the basis for ethnic identity as a group membership. These theorists suggest that through attention to relationships between ethnic groups we can open up space to challenge existing ethnic power relations. The paper draws upon qualitative research in two English local authorities to explore how long-standing conceptualisations of ethnicity act to diminish the positive contribution that attention to difference can have. The findings suggest that planners make positive efforts to understand ethnic difference and engage with community groups. However, the identification of groups is not a neutral or objective process, but instead is power-ridden. This article argues that the progressive edge of planning and efforts of planners are undermined if we do not interrogate the basis for the understanding of ethnic difference.     

温州古城特色和历史街区保护刍议

温州古城特色主要体现在“山、水、城”的布局特色和以永嘉化为代表的商城特色上。温州古城历史街区保护的总体思路是：在保护古城格局的大前提下,重点围绕“东庙、南市、西居、北埠”的格局进行分片筛选,选定商业性历史街区、居住性历史街区、公其性历史街区各两个进行保护。     

Transport energy use in the Perth Metropolitan Region: Some urban policy implications

Abstract

Estimates are made of transport energy use and petrol costs in 38 zones of Perth. An average outer northern suburban household spent around $2000 on petrol in 1984 compared to $660 for households in inner Fremantle. The differences are due primarily to land use rather than income and indicate certain directions for urban planning and policy.     

School Siting

Problem: The United States is embarking on an unprecedented era of school construction even as debate continues over where schools should be located and how much land they should occupy.

Purpose: My three goals for this study were to trace the evolution of school siting standards, to explain the factors currently influencing school facility location decisions, and to identify what local and regional planners could contribute to school siting decisions.

Methods: I reviewed the land use planning and educational facilities literatures on school siting and conducted in-depth interviews with school facility planners from 10 counties in Maryland and northern Virginia to assess their perspectives on the school planning process.

Results and conclusions: I discovered that different groups use very different definitions of community school. Smart growth proponents advocate community schools that are small and intimately linked to neighborhoods, while school facility planners expect community schools to meet the needs of entire localities. I recommend that individual communities consider the tradeoffs associated with different school sizes and make choices that meet local preferences for locations within walking distance of students, potential for sports fields, school design, and connections to neighborhoods. State school construction and siting policies should support flexibility for localities.

Takeaway for practice: Local and regional planners should work with school facility planners to conduct exercises and charettes to help each community determine how to realize its own vision of community schools.

Research support: The School of Architecture at the University of Virginia and the Department of City and Regional Planning at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill supported this research.     

历史地段保护的概念和作法

本文回顾了国际上历史地段保护的演变以及中国历史街区保护概念的形成，进一步阐明了我国历史地段保护的原则和方法。     

White Moving Plans in a Racially Changing Middle-Class Community

Two assumptions commonly held by planners regarding racially changing communities are tested: (1) that racial changes are accompanied by a speed-up in white outmigration, and (2) that these areas are most likely to retain the highly educated household heads. Telephone interviews were conducted in an area in Philadelphia encompassing a racially changing community and a stable, predominantly white community. Bivariate cross tabular analysis and multi-variate regression analysis are utilized to identify the determinants of moving plans. White residents are shown to accelerate their moving plans in response to racial changes; education is not a significant factor in holding families to the changing community. Therefore, most localistic stabilization policies are likely to have only a limited potential for success, whereas metropolitan-wide policies aimed at dispersing black families are more likely to improve the long-range prospects for stabilizing mixed communities.     

Urban conservation policy and the preservation of historical and cultural heritage: The case of Singapore

In cities experiencing rapid economic growth, historic districts with rich cultural heritage are often demolished and replaced by modern high-rise buildings. This article shows the success of Singapore's urban conservation policy in preserving its historic districts in the face of a fast expanding economy and rapid urban development. A survey in the conservation areas shows that the policy has succeeded in preserving the historic old shophouses to a large extent. An analysis of the use of shophouses shows that the policy has also succeeded in retaining the activities which reflect the community life in the core areas of Chinatown, Kampong Glam and Little India. This is because the policy allows for the operation of market forces which makes preservation and restoration of the old shophouses viable.     

The Migrant Metropolis and American Planning

Problem: Immigration poses various problems for U.S. cities and regions, and the roles planners should play in migrant communities are not clear.

Purpose: I consider how practitioners and scholars have understood and addressed the planning challenges and opportunities presented by the major migrations of ethnic minorities to U.S. cities and regions over the past century.

Methods: I trace discussions of planning and migration at professional planning conferences over the past century and survey planning scholarship and practice related to immigration and migrant communities in three principal eras: early 20th century southern and eastern European immigration; the mid-century internal migrations of African Americans and Puerto Ricans; and immigration in the late 20th and early 21st century.

Results and conclusions: Over the past century, immigration has had physical, economic, and social effects on people and places that are legitimate concerns of urban planners. Yet, the planning profession has had an ambiguous and often ambivalent relationship with migrant communities and has struggled to define specific roles for planners within those communities while social workers and other community and economic development practitioners played larger roles. Planning scholars have not paid as much attention to migrants' adaptation and mobility in U.S. society or their impacts on receiving communities, labor markets, housing, and congestion as have other scholars and urbanists.

Takeaway for practice: Planners have engaged with migrants in a variety of ways. Understanding this history provides context for contemporary debates about immigration and helps frame challenges and opportunities in migrant and receiving communities as planning problems.

Research support: None.     

From Local to Global: One Hundred Years of Neighborhood Planning

Problem: Over the past 100 years, city planners have used neighborhood planning to address a variety of vexing social problems such as community disintegration, economic marginalization, and environmental degradation. To date, there has been no comprehensive review and critique of these planning initiatives and how they have influenced the profession.

Purpose: This article traces the history of neighborhood planning in the United States to learn from past experience and to identify its contributions to the planning profession.

Methods: I review the literature on the various forms of neighborhood planning, which I define as planning initiatives that focus on altering the physical environment of one or more neighborhoods in pursuit of larger social objectives.

Results and conclusions: Each of the six forms of neighborhood planning discussed in this article has made important contributions to the planning profession. Perry's neighborhood unit formula provided planners with a template for good neighborhood design and introduced the idea that neighborhood design could affect the sense of community. Urban renewal taught the profession about the limits of physical solutions to social problems, the precious nature of neighborhood social networks and the importance of involving citizens. The community action programs created a new norm for citizen participation and showed its limits, as well as introducing truly comprehensive redevelopment planning. Community economic development showed that some planning and implementation activities can be successfully delegated to community-based organizations. Municipal neighborhood planning provided a mechanism for ongoing citizen involvement. The most recent forms of neighborhood planning create neighborhoods that encourage walking, use of mass transit, social interaction, and a sense of community.

Takeaway for practice: Neighborhood planning programs have made a number of important contributions to the planning profession, including focusing attention on how neighborhood design influences urban livability and social behaviors, institutionalizing citizen participation in plan making, and going beyond physical development to address social, economic, political, and environmental issues. Neighborhood planning is currently more important than ever, as it now addresses global issues such as energy conservation and greenhouse gas emissions in addition to its historic focus on social equity issues such as poverty and social alienation.

Research support: None.     

Green Building Assessment Systems: A Framework and Comparison for Planners

Problem: Building assessment systems allow planners to examine whether buildings and developments meet sustainability goals, but no framework exists to help planners choose among them.

Purpose: This study develops a framework for planners to use in considering which building assessment system would be most appropriate for their purposes and analyzes nine such systems.

Methods: I conducted a content analysis of the system documentation for nine building assessment systems used in the United States and interviewed administrators of the systems.

Results and conclusions: Although many building assessment systems appear at first to be quite similar, they have substantial differences, and could produce significantly different results when used to implement green building programs. Among the important differences are the scales at which they consider various issues, whether or not they emphasize communication, and how they prioritize and weight concerns. I also found that most national building assessment systems lack a mechanism for adapting them to local concerns and conditions.

Takeaway for practice: While building assessment systems offer new tools to help communities meet sustainability goals, planners should consider the details of each system carefully before deciding on which to use in their communities. It would be very desirable for building assessment systems to become adaptable, so they will be more locally relevant and appropriate.

Research support: None.     

策划排斥与特权: 作为新自由主义工具的历史、遗产和自然

In the early 20th century, zoning, restrictive covenants, deed restrictions, and federallysponsored real estate maps that directed bank loans operated at multiple levels to perpetuate spatial patterns that separated whites from Blacks, Asians, and other non-Anglo ethnics; homeowners from renters; and single-family dwellings from multi-family units. The obvious overtly racial biases of those systems are socially unacceptable today but their underlying purposes have since been augmented by new tools that mask further discrimination. This article presents a critical examination of the relationship between historic preservation, open space easements, and farmland preservation practices to reveal how these regulations support racial and social discrimination in American land-use practices. Existing literature presumes that history, nature, and farming, preserved by these practices are cultural, environmental, and public positives. An examination of the underlying forces shows how these goals are achieved by restrictive instruments that create exclusion and protect privilege by controlling development and establishing and maintaining social norms that exclude certain groups while welcoming others. Using documentary evidence, this paper establishes historic preservation’s origins as an instrument of racial and ethnic exclusion in Charleston, South Carolina and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania of the United States, and the subsequent evolution of historic districts into gentrified, white neighborhoods. Two case studies in the New York metropolitan area, chosen for their use of historic preservation with farmland preservation (Cranbury Township, Middlesex County, New Jersey), and historic preservation with open space easements (Town of Bedford, Westchester County, New York) as resistance to affordable residential development, demonstrate how enclaves of exclusion and privilege were created. This article further establishes how these tools commodify history and landscapes into transactional entities that attain value in today’s neoliberal wealth-focused environment.     

美国历史街区保护的推动模式

通过四个典型历史街区保护历程的分析,归纳了美国历史街区保护的四种推动模式：城市规划主导、城市更新拉动、社区组织推动和保护基金带动,其经验对我国历史街区保护具有重要启示意义。     

Redefining a Southern City's Heritage: Historic Preservation Planning,Public Art,and Race in Richmond,Virginia

Historic preservation is a planning technique employed in many American metropolitan areas. A local ordinance specifies those districts that deserve careful attention, then an Architectural Review Board determines whether or not the proposed redevelopment schemes are appropriate for the historic design character of those precincts. Today, there are over 1,800 such boards in place, making critical decisions on rehabilitations, infill development, urban amenities, and public art projects. This narrative examines the siting of a public art project within an historic district in Richmond, Virginia: The district is the Monument Avenue Historic District, and the public art project is the sculpture of Arthur Ashe, which is sited within that historic area. In the process that culminated in the Arthur Ashe statue taking its place on Monument Avenue, the activities of public planning institutions were central. But the ultimate decision was the product, as well, of local politics, racial attitudes, public art standards, and passionate concern for the integrity of an historic landscape. This article seeks to illuminate the intricacies of that local decision-making process.