PDTC对PV-杀白细胞素(PVL)诱导THP-1巨噬细胞NF-κB活化及炎性因子表达的影响

目的 探讨二硫代氨基甲酸吡咯烷(PDTC)对PV-杀白细胞素(panton-valentine Ieucocidin,PVL)诱导THP-1巨噬细胞NF-κB及炎性因子表达的影响.方法 实验分3组,PBS对照组、rPVL刺激组和PDTC处理组,在加入rPVL刺激前60 min,给予100 μmol/L PDTC预处理THP-1巨噬细胞.采用免疫组化检测NF-κB的移位,Western blot检测细胞胞质IκB蛋白和胞核NF-κB蛋白表达,ELISA法检测细胞上清IL-8和IL-6蛋白的表达,RT-PCR法检测IL-8和IL-6 mRNA水平表达.结果 PDTC处理组NF-κB阳性细胞明显减少,核蛋白表达降低,胞质IκB蛋白降解减少;IL-8和IL-6mRNA表达明显下调,蛋白分泌量分别由12.96 ng/ml和6.55 ng/ml降低到6.78 ng/ml和3.88ng/ml,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 PDTC可能通过抑制NF-κB的活性,从而降低II-8和IL-6的表达,对PVL引起的炎性损伤具有一定的保护作用.     

熊果酸减轻LPS诱导的THP-1细胞损伤

目的探讨熊果酸减轻脂多糖诱导的THP-1细胞损伤的作用及其机制。方法以脂多糖诱导的THP-1炎性细胞为模型,MTT法检测不同浓度的熊果酸(0.1、1、5、10、20、40和80μmol/L)对细胞增殖的影响,RT-PCR法检测TLR4、MCP-1和IL-6 mRNA的表达,ELISA法检测MCP-1和IL-6表达,Western blot法检测P65、磷酸化P65蛋白表达,荧光素酶报告系统检测核转录因子κB(NF-κB)活性。结果与对照组比较,LPS作用组能显著增高MCP-1、TLR4、IL-6 mRNA和MCP-1、IL-6、P65、磷酸化P65蛋白的表达并上调NF-κB活性(P0.05);与LPS单独作用组比较,熊果酸(1和5μmol/L)干预组能够显著降低MCP-1、TLR4、IL-6mRNA和MCP-1、IL-6表达水平并下调NF-κB活性(P0.05)。结论熊果酸可能是通过下调NF-κB活化减轻脂多糖诱导的THP-1细胞的损伤。     

STAT3抑制剂Stattic激活ERK通路诱导THP-1细胞IL-8的产生及细胞凋亡

目的观察信号转导子与转录激活子3(STAT3)抑制剂Stattic对THP-1细胞产生白细胞介素8(IL-8)和细胞凋亡的影响,并探讨其机制。方法采用(0、 1、 5、 10、 15、 20)μmol/L Stattic处理THP-1细胞0、 1、 3、 6、 12、 24h,实时荧光定量PCR检测细胞IL-8、 IL-6、 IL-1β、肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)的mRNA水平, ELISA检测细胞培养上清液IL-8蛋白水平,流式细胞术检测THP-1细胞的凋亡, Western blot法检测细胞STAT3、细胞外信号调节激酶(ERK)的蛋白磷酸化水平;采用(0、 1、 5、 10)μmol/L的ERK通路选择性抑制剂U0126预处理THP-1细胞,反转录PCR检测U0126对Stattic诱导THP-1细胞表达IL-8 mRNA水平的影响。结果 (10～20)μmol/LStattic显著上调IL-8在THP-1细胞中的mRNA和蛋白表达,仅(15、 20)μmol/LStattic能诱导THP-1细胞凋亡; Stattic处理THP-1细胞1、 3、 6、 12、 24 h,均显著上调IL-8的mRNA水平,以3 h时最为明显,在6 h以后呈时间依赖性上调IL-8的蛋白水平并诱导THP-1细胞凋亡;Stattic呈浓度和时间依赖性抑制STAT3磷酸化,时间依赖性地诱导ERK磷酸化,在(1、 5、 10、 15、 20)μmol/L时均显著诱导ERK磷酸化。另外, U0126显著抑制Stattic诱导的IL-8 mRNA表达。结论 STAT3抑制剂Stattic通过激活ERK信号通路诱导THP-1细胞凋亡和IL-8产生。     

乙型肝炎病毒X蛋白通过激活ERKs和NF-κB上调大鼠系膜细胞表达TNF-α

目的 探讨乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)X基因转染大鼠系膜细胞肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)高表达的细胞外蛋白调节激酶(ERKs)、核因子κB(NF-κB)、P38 MAPK信号传导机制.方法 将含有HBV X基因的质粒pCI-neo-X导入体外培养的大鼠系膜细胞,分别采用特异性抑制剂U0126阻断ERK1/2通路,Lactacystin阻断NF-κB通路和SB203580阻断P38 MAPK通路,观察培养细胞TNF-α及其mRNA表达,以不加抑制剂作为对照.RT-PCR检测TNF-α mRNA表达,ELISA检测培养上清液中TNF-α表达.Western blot检测乙型肝炎病毒X蛋白(HBx)表达.结果 转染pCI-neo-X后,系膜细胞TNF-α mRNA及上清液TNF-α表达均增高,通过阻断ERK1/2或NF-κB通路,细胞TNF-α mRNA及上清液TNF-α表达均下降.而阻断P38 MAPK通路对系膜细胞TNF-α mRNA及上清液TNF-α表达无明显影响.结论 HBx蛋白通过激活ERKs和NF-κB信号通路使系膜细胞高表达TNF-α,而与P38 MAPK通路无关.     

过表达SIRT1抑制脂多糖诱导的胰岛β细胞炎症因子表达及NF-κB信号通路激活

目的研究沉默信息调节因子1(SIRT1)对脂多糖(LPS)诱导的胰岛β细胞炎症因子表达及核因子-κB(NF-κB)信号通路激活的影响。方法用LPS处理胰岛β细胞,qRT-PCR和Western blot测定细胞中SIRT1表达变化。用pcDNA3.1-SIRT1慢病毒感染胰岛β细胞,qRT-PCR检测细胞中白细胞介素-6(IL-6)mRNA和肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)mRNA表达水平,流式细胞术测定细胞凋亡变化,Western blot检测细胞中Bcl-2相关X蛋白(Bax)、活化型Caspase-3(cleaved Caspase-3)、核因子-κBp65亚型(NF-κBp65)、Toll样受体4(TLR4)蛋白表达水平。结果 LPS处理后的胰岛β细胞中SIRT1表达水平降低。pcDNA3.1-SIRT1慢病毒感染可以提高LPS条件下胰岛β细胞中SIRT1表达水平。LPS处理后的胰岛β细胞中IL-6 mRNA和TNF-αmRNA表达水平升高,凋亡率升高,细胞中Bax、Cleaved Caspase-3、NF-κBp65、TLR4蛋白表达升高。过表达SIRT1可以降低LPS条件下胰岛β细胞中IL-6 mRNA和TNF-αmRNA表达水平,抑制细胞凋亡,减少细胞中Bax、cleaved Caspase-3、NF-κBp65、TLR4蛋白表达。结论 SIRT1减少LPS诱导的胰岛β细胞炎症因子表达并下调细胞中NF-κB信号激活水平。     

法舒地尔(Fasudil)抑制脂多糖诱导的小鼠星形胶质细胞活化和炎性反应及其机制

目的探讨法舒地尔(Fasudil)对脂多糖(LPS)诱导的星形胶质细胞活化和炎症反应及Toll样受体4(TLR4)/核因子κB(NF-κB)信号通路的影响。方法体外培养新生C57BL/6小鼠大脑皮质星形胶质细胞,细胞分为PBS对照组、1μg/m L LPS刺激组、1μg/m L LPS联合15μg/m L盐酸法舒地尔处理组,Griess法检测培养细胞上清液一氧化氮(NO)的水平,ELISA检测肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)、白细胞介素6(IL-6)、IL-10和IL-4的水平,免疫荧光细胞化学染色检测星形胶质细胞胶质原纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)及TLR4的表达,Western blot法检测GFAP、TLR4和磷酸化的NF-κBp65(p-NF-κBp65)蛋白水平。结果与PBS组比较,LPS组NO、TNF-α和IL-6水平显著升高,IL-10和IL-4水平降低;法舒地尔能抑制LPS诱导的NO、TNF-α和IL-6的分泌,增加IL-10和IL-4的分泌。法舒地尔处理组星形胶质细胞GFAP表达显著降低,同时TLR4和NF-κB蛋白的水平也降低。结论法舒地尔阻断TLR4/NF-κB信号通路抑制LPS诱导的星形胶质细胞活化及炎性反应。     

镧抑制内毒素/脂多糖激活NF-κB信号通路的分子机制探讨

目的 分析镧调控内毒素/脂多糖(LPS)激活巨噬细胞核因子-κB(NF-κB)信号通路的分子机制.方法 体外培养RAW264.7小鼠巨噬细胞,随机分为:LaCl3 +LPS组、LPS对照组、LaCl3对照组和空白对照组.免疫细胞化学法分析p65蛋白核转位情况;分别提取细胞总蛋白或胞核胞质蛋白,ELISA法测胞核蛋白中p65蛋白与靶基因结合的活性;Western blot分析胞核蛋白中p65蛋白、胞质中核因子抑制蛋白α(IκBα)和磷酸化的核因子抑制蛋白α(p-IκBα)水平,及总蛋白IKK激酶的表达和磷酸化情况.结果 镧可阻断LPS诱导p65蛋白活化,如抑制其核转位、降低其在胞核中的表达并减弱其与靶基因结合活性.镧可抑制LPS诱导的IκBα降解,但LPS诱导IKKβ磷酸化不能为镧所阻断,且p-IKKβ磷酸化IκBα的能力亦未受到镧的影响.结论 镧可通过抑制LPS激活巨噬细胞IκBα蛋白降解、p65蛋白核易位及与靶基因结合,从而抑制LPS诱导NF-κB信号通路的活化,这可能是镧抑制LPS活化NF-κB通路分子机制之一.     

LPS通过TLR4信号通路诱导人肾小管上皮细胞株(HK-2)表达hBD-2

目的研究LPS体外刺激人肾小管上皮细胞株(HK-2)是否诱导表达hBD-2,并进一步探讨该表达与TLR4/NF-κB信号传导通路的关系。方法给予不同质量浓度的LPS(0.01、0.1、1、10μg/ml)刺激HK-2细胞12 h,再应用TLR4及NF-κB阻断剂预处理HK-2细胞1 h后,给予质量浓度为1μg/ml的LPS作用12 h,采用实时荧光定量PCR检测HK-2细胞hBD-2 mRNA的表达,ELISA检测细胞上清中hBD-2的表达。结果 1)LPS能诱导HK-2细胞hBD-2 mRNA及蛋白的表达,且这种表达具有质量浓度依赖性;2)TLR4阻断剂能抑制LPS对HK-2细胞表达hBD-2的诱导作用,与未阻断之前相比差异具有统计学意义(P<0.01);3)NF-κB阻断剂能抑制LPS对HK-2细胞表达hBD-2的诱导作用,与未阻断之前相比差异具有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论 LPS可能通过TLR4/NF-κB信号传导通路诱导HK-2细胞表达hBD-2,将为泌尿系统感染防治提供新靶点。     

二妙散对CIA 大鼠关节NF-κBp50 和ERK1 / 2 表达特性的影响

目的:探究不同浓度二妙散(EMS)对CIA大鼠关节中NF-κBp50和ERK1/2表达特性的影响。方法:构建胶原性关节炎(CIA)大鼠模型,灌胃给予不同浓度EMS,ELISA检测血清IL-6、IL-10和TNF-α表达,qRT-PCR和Western blot检测大鼠关节NF-κBp50和ERK1/2 mRNA和蛋白表达,免疫组化技术进行定位。结果:成功构建CIA大鼠模型,NF-κBp50、ERK1/2在不同实验组大鼠关节中均有表达,在CIA大鼠关节中的表达显著高于其他实验组(P0.01),3.0 g/kg EMS组大鼠关节NF-κBp50、ERK1/2 mRNA和蛋白水平最高(P0.01),大鼠关节滑膜成纤维细胞、内皮细胞、基质细胞和巨噬细胞中均检测到阳性信号(P0.05)。结论:NF-κBp50和ERK1/2参与RA发生发展,3.0 g/kg EMS可显著抑制炎症因子、NF-κBp50和ERK1/2表达,对于阐明EMS治疗RA的作用机制具有重要意义。     

猪苓多糖对膀胱癌细胞TLR2/4-NF-κB信号通路相关基因影响

目的:研究猪苓多糖(PPS)对膀胱癌细胞(T739)TLR2/4-NF-κB通路相关基因表达的影响及其与TLR2/4关系.方法:应用qRT-PCR、Western blot和流式细胞术(FCM)等方法检测PPS作用T739细胞后IKKB、NF-κB p65、ICAM1和CCL2 mRNA与蛋白表达变化;应用标记探针结合酶联免疫吸附法检测PPS作用T739细胞后NF-κB p65 DNA结合活性改变;应用免疫组化方法观察PPS作用T739细胞后NF-κBp65胞核表达变化.结果:PPS作用T739细胞后,IKBKB(IKKβ)、Rel A(NF-κB p65)、ICAM1和CCL2 mRNA表达均显著下降,IKKB、CCL2蛋白表达也下调,ICAM1蛋白表达无明显变化,并且沉默TLR4后能抑制上述基因表达下调,沉默TLR2作用不明显.同时PPS能减弱T739细胞胞核的NF-κBp65 DNA结合活性及下调NF-κB p65胞核表达;沉默TLR4后能抑制NF-κB p65的DNA结合活性的降低与NF-κB p65胞核表达的下调.结论:猪苓多糖主要经TLR4信号通路抑制相关基因表达、NF-κB p65 DNA结合活性与胞核表达,TLR2信号通路也参与了2个基因表达的介导作用.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

The universal muscular chain reaction,muscle spasm,Torsions, ruptures and extravasations. Chameleons of pathology and some manifestations of simple muscular disorders

Most bodily functions require the coordinated actions of complementary and supplementary paired muscle groups. Where this essential muscular cooperation is lacking, hollow organs may burst and others become literally screwed up, giving rise to many similar spastic diseases such as Torticollis, Twisted ovarian cyst, Torsion of the Testis, Volvulus of the intestines, Varicose Veins, Megacolon, Aortamegaly, Scoliosis, Erb's Palsy, Peyronie's Disease, Main-en-Griffe, Undescended Foot (Pes Cavus), Talipes, Strabismus. Spasm is “panenepidemic” and unclassified examples of Torsion Dystonia and Dyskinesia really are as common as debt and taxes.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.     

Hypo- und Hypermagnesämie aus kardiologischer Sicht

Zusammenfassung Eine Reihe pathologischer Zustände bedingen Magnesiummangel. Zustände mit Hypermagnesämie sind ebenfalls bekannt, doch wesentlich seltener. Für den Kardiologen beachtenswert ist, daß unter Therapie mit bestimmten Diuretica bei Herzinsuffizienz, bei Herzinfarkt, Kardiomyopathie, Digitalisintoxikation und bestimmten Herzrhythmusstörungen Hypomagnesämie beobachtet wurde. Leider kann in der klinischen Routine nur ein extracelluläres Magnesiumdefizit durch Serumbestimmungen gemessen werden; über Magnesiummangel einzelner Organe kann nichts ausgesagt werden. Hinweise für Magnesiummangel geben aber neben der Messung des Serumspiegels Anamnese, klinischer Befund, bestimmte EKG-Veränderungen wie auch evtl. Hypokalämie, ein Zustand, bei dem sich oft — besonders bei Aldosteronismus — parallele Veränderungen zeigten.Tierexperimente deuten darauf hin, daß infarktähnliche Läsionen unter Magnesiummangel entstehen, doch ob Herzinfarkt beim Menschen durch Magnesiummangel ausgelöst werden kann, ist noch ungeklärt. In Leichenherzen zeigte sich im Infarktgebiet neben Calciumakkumulation signifikanter Magnesiumverlust, wobei unklar blieb, ob sich Ursache oder Folge des Infarktes widerspiegelten. Falls ein ursächlicher Zusammenhang besteht, ist er im Myokardstoffwechsel selbst zu suchen, wie bei der Alkoholkardiomyopathie, wo myokardialer Magnesiummangel zumindest als pathogenetischer Teilfaktor anerkannt wird. Andererseits versucht man aber auch Beziehungen zwischen Atherosklerose, Blutgerinnung und Hypomagnesämie herzustellen, in der Meinung, daß Magnesiummangel auch über den coronaren Pathomechanismus des Herzinfarktes wirken könnte. Sicher scheint, daß gewisse EKG-Veränderungen und Herzrhythmusstörungen durch einen irritierten Magnesiumhaushalt bedingt sein können, da sie bei Gabe bzw. Entzug von Magnesium verschwinden. Daß Magnesiummangel die Glykosidtoleranz verringert, wird tierexperimentell bestätigt. Unter Hypomagnesämie bewirkt Acetylstrophanthidin eher und länger Rhythmusstörungen als ohne, außerdem lassen diese sich durch Magnesiumgaben eliminieren. Da in gewissen Fällen spontane und digitalisinduzierte Herzrythmusstörungen durch Magnesiuminjektionen beseitigt wurden, scheint Magnesium als Therapeuticum angebracht. Einsatz verschiedener Magnesiumsalze bei Angina pectoris, degenerativen Herzerkrankungen und Herzinsuffizienz ohne geprüften und offensichtlich gestörten Magnesiumhaushalt ist fragwürdig, weil keine eindeutigen klinischen Erfolgsbeweise vorliegen. Immerhin mag es aber larvierte, durch Serumbestimmungen nicht erfaßbare Mangelzustände geben. Allgemein erscheint es aus kardiologischer Sicht ratsam, den Magnesiumhaushalt zu überwachen und in entsprechenden Fällen auszugleichen, um möglichen Myokardläsionen oder fatalen Herzrhythmusstörungen entgegenzuwirken.     

HLA in North Colombia Chimila Amerindians

HLA-A,-B,-C,-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Chimila Amerindians from Sabana de San Angel (North Colombian Coast) by using high resolution molecular typing. A frequent extended haplotype was found:HLA-A*24:02-B*51:10-C*15:02-BRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 (28.7%) which has also been described in Amerinndian Mayos Mexican population (Mexico, California Gulf, Pacific Ocean). Other haplotypes had already been found in Amerindians from Mexico (Pacific and Atlantic Coast), Peru (highlands and Amazon Basin), Bolivia and North USA. A geographic pattern according to HLA allele or haplotype frequencies is lacking in Amerindians, as already known. Also, five new extended haplotypes were found in Chimila Amerindians. Their HLA-A*24:02 high frequencies characteristic is shared with aboriginal populations of Taiwan; also, HLA-C*01:02 high frequencies are found in New Zealand Maoris, New Caledonians and Kimberly Aborigines from Australia. Finally, this study may show a model of evolutionary factors acting and rising one HLA allele frequency (-A*24:02), but not in others that belong to the same or different HLA loci.     

The case for allele‐specific recognition by the TCR

There is a sharp difference in how one views TCR structure–function–behaviour dependent on whether its recognition of major histocompatibility complex‐encoded restriction elements (R) is germline selected or somatically generated. The generally accepted or Standard model is built on the assumption that recognition of R is by the V regions of the αβ TCR, which is not driven by allele specificity, whereas the competing model posits that recognition of R is allele‐specific. The establishing of allele‐specific recognition of R by the TCR would rule out the Standard model and clear the road to a consideration of a competing construct, the Tritope model. Here, the case for allele‐specific recognition (germline selected) is detailed making it obvious that the Standard model is untenable.