上海住宅市场化开发的机制分析及反思

上海1990年代住宅市场化开发是政府（及其下属部门）、住宅的开发者（开发商和投资商）以及住宅的使用者（城市居民为主）共同表现的舞台。他们为了追求各自的特定利益，而在推动住宅的市场化开发进程中扮演着不同角色，继而影响了城市住宅空间的格局。房地产商在政府放任的市场化导向下，主宰了住宅空间格局的变化而城市居民在有限的选择下被动地接受着这一空间的变化。     

居住环境品质优化下的中国社区规划演变研究——以广州市保障房社区为例

社区是社会治理的基石,构筑共建共治共享的社会治理模式是新时代对社区规划的顶层设计指引,也是国外社区规划的魅力所在。国内的社区规划长期聚焦于对物质空间的刻画,但随着政府和公众对居住环境品质关注度的提升,社区规划正逐步转型,但转型程度尚有待探索。以广州市早期及新建成的保障房社区为例,从居住环境品质的角度对规划实施成效及公众参与的影响程度进行比较评价。结果显示,保障房社区规划的制度设计与技术标准均有提升,规划编制与实施也更多地吸纳公众的意见。为社区规划的转型与社区共同缔造提供参考。     

Trends of out-mobility from large housing estates in Stockholm: influences of the housing policy and neighbourhood context

Since 1990s Stockholm housing market has seen deregulations in accordance with liberalization trends in other European welfare states. The new governance principles together with increasing immigration and public rental housing conversions into cooperative housing in attractive inner city areas have put pressure on still rental-dominated estates because fewer rental dwellings must now cater to expanding numbers of people who have little choice on the housing market. In recent decades, many estates have displayed increasing signs of stigmatization, social exclusion, and outflow of relatively affluent people. This paper improves our knowledge of how the housing policy and economic changes have affected out-mobility from the housing estates in case of three cohorts of young people and how the childhood neighbourhood conditions affect this. Individual annual Swedish registry data (1990–2014) are employed to longitudinally study the out-mobility patterns of three cohorts that grew up in the estates against the backdrop of marketization, growing inequality and deteriorating conditions. This study supplements the existing literature on housing estates by clarifying how income has become more and ethnicity less important over time in explaining sorting patterns from these estates. However, the combination of the two has determined sorting throughout the study period. Growing up in a higher socioeconomic status neighbourhood had modest impact on reducing socioeconomic differences in out-mobility from the estates, while leading to more sorting based on ethnic background.

     

美国与法国的社会住宅：共性与差异

美国自大萧条之后以及法国在二战之后，分别发展了补贴性的出租房居住区，然而在这之后，出租房的开发急剧变化，更多地依靠私有部门可以采用的措施。本文通过案例对比，说明如下道理在特定的环境下，解决住房问题的有效方法应基于对该问题的正确诊断，并且考虑该国的国情及其局部地区的特征。对于从中央到地方各级政府，这是创造高效、可持续以及可负担住房财政机制的最佳途径。本文将讨论美国与法国解决住房问题的不同方法。对美国案例的探讨，我们关注两个计划：运用税法作为激励措施的低收入住房返税计划，以及容许公共住房机构将资金流证券化，以此更新住房的投资基金融资计划。在同一时期，法国在私人出租房产业内实行税收补贴，除此之外，这种补贴还在公共住房领域内推行。重税措施抑制了私人投资之后，慷慨的税收激励措施使资金重返祖房市场。这些计划对于中等收入的住户而言，大多数是不可负担的。于是，这导致了最近几年内公共住宅小区的建遣需要更多来自政府的承诺。     

Housing Consumption and Housing Inequality in Chinese Cities During the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century

During the first decade of the twenty-first century, Chinese cities have experienced the unprecedented housing development and marketization, which has profoundly changed housing consumption. Using the latest census data, this paper provides the first evaluation of housing consumption in Chinese cities during 2000–2010. Not surprisingly, housing consumption has improved significantly over time, especially in the first five years due to more rapid marketization. Yet, housing inequality has increased significantly over time, especially across education groups. There is also significant spatial inequality at provincial level; yet, it has generally declined over time except inequality in homeownership and subsidized housing. Improved housing consumption and a complex pattern of housing inequality are two main characteristics of housing consumption during this decade.     

Development Pathways of Large Housing Estates in Post-socialist Cities: An International Comparison

Large housing estates in former state-socialist countries had been hardly affected by social erosion before the political changes. However, the emergence of new, capitalist forms of housing after 1990 started to endanger the position of large housing estates on the local housing market. The question was repeatedly raised in the literature about whether large housing estates of post-socialist cities would experience physical decay and social downgrading similar to the West. This paper investigates the socio-economic differentiation of large housing estates in the former state-socialist countries using a case study approach. Housing satisfaction and mobility of residents in four post-socialist housing estates were analysed through a standardised household survey. Empirical data confirm that despite their similar physical appearance, the attitude of people towards large housing estates and their position on the local housing market vary significantly. The authors conclude that even though socialist large housing estates are affected by social downgrading, nevertheless they represent relative social stability and can offer affordable housing to people who are at the start of their housing career.     

Second Home Ownership in Transitional Urban China

China has recently experienced a massive growth in second home ownership. This paper argues that second home ownership in Chinese cities is not only a result of an increasingly mature housing market but, more importantly, an unintended consequence of socialist housing policies and institutions, such as the subsidized sale of public rental housing and associated partial property rights, the continued provision of subsidized housing by work units, the continuing household registration system and the lack of property tax. Using the 2005 China General Social Survey, this paper empirically studies the patterns and dynamics of second home ownership in urban China. While households' socio-economic status contributes to conventional second home ownership, the persisting socialist housing policies and institutions have led to the unique phenomena of owing one home with partial property rights and owning a second home, and renting the primary home even in the public sector and owning a second home.     

‘From Choice to Chance’: choice-based letting use in forced tenant relocations in New South Wales,Australia

Abstract

The redevelopment of large social housing estates has emerged as a central policy response to address housing affordability and social housing crises in Australia. These projects, often done in partnership with the private sector, are seen as opportunities to leverage government land assets and increase densities to expand social and private housing stock. While extensive research has been conducted on the rationale and processes of estate renewal, less attention has been paid to tenant relocation practices. This is the focus of this article. In particular we explore the New South Wales Government’s use of a choice-based letting program called ‘My Property Choice’ (MPC) that involves tenants bidding via a ballot system for available social housing properties. We argue, despite policy rhetoric emphasising resident ‘choice’, MPC emerges as a chance-based process for tenants seeking to ‘win’ their desired relocation destinations.     

Social Cohesiveness of Disadvantaged Communities in Urban South Korea: The Impact of the Physical Environment

This paper examines the impact of the physical environment and residents' perception and use of the environment settings on the social cohesiveness of disadvantaged communities in South Korea. Multiple regression and qualitative analysis were applied based on the data collected in four public rental housing estates in Seoul accommodating the lowest income households. This paper argues that social cohesiveness could be operationalised in shared norms and trust, attachment to housing estate and social networking. It was found that the characteristics of social cohesiveness were different across the same type of public rental housing estates, and that this variance was partly due to the different conditions of the physical environment. It was also found that a more positive perception of the physical environment and the more frequent use of facilities generally enhanced community cohesiveness. Desirable land use mix and housing types around the housing estates, preferable community facilities, housing block design and more effective refurbishment programmes within the estates were recommended.     

The changing environment and neighbourhood satisfaction in socialist high-rise panel housing estates: The time-comparative perceptions of elderly residents in Prague

Population aging represents a significant trend in shaping contemporary urban areas, and research investigating various aspects of age-friendly cities and neighbourhoods has enjoyed increasing attention from urban scholars and practitioners. The neighbourhood transformations that have been taking place in socialist high-rise panel housing estates in the last 20 years raise concerns as to how they are experienced by local elderly populations. Although a number of studies have addressed recent developments in high-rise panel estates in countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), little is known about the self-perceived residential quality of elderly inhabitants. This paper investigates the neighbourhood satisfaction of the elderly living in housing estates in Prague, the Czech Republic. The focus of this study is on their perceptions of the opportunities and barriers presented by the changing residential environments in relation to their daily independence. The paper takes a time-comparative approach based on face-to-face interviews with elderly adults from three different study areas. The findings suggest that neighbourhood satisfaction is influenced, among other factors, by the “life stage” of the housing estate, by the individual circumstances of moving to the neighbourhood and by the time to adapt to the new environment. Although the elderly evaluate housing estates as convenient places to live, the risks related to demographic aging and the deterioration of local facilities must be taken seriously.     

Revisiting the role of architects in planning large-scale housing in the USSR: the birth of socialist residential districts in Tallinn,Estonia, 1957–1979

In Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, housing estates are often associated with inhumane architecture and unwelcoming public space, an outcome that can be attributed to strict design requirements in a rigid centralized system. Due to the uniformity of residential housing produced during socialist times, both the design process and its master – the architect – are believed to have played only minor roles in shaping townscapes. This study, situated in the large housing estates of Tallinn, Estonia, challenges these assumptions using analyses of archival material (relating to planning procedures during state socialism) and articles in specialized magazines. The study also explains – through first-hand interviews with senior architects who were key players in building socialist cities – the relations between Soviet regulations and vital elements of the city-building process, including creativity, power, and artistry. Analysis of primary source materials highlights an oversimplification of socialist modernism, which suggests more nuanced explanations for town planning outcomes. Findings suggest that regulations issued in Moscow for Union of Soviet Socialist Republic-wide planning played a less important role than previously assumed in town planning outcomes in Estonia. International modernist city planning ideals, combined with local expertise, strongly influenced town planning practice in the Soviet ‘West’.     

Strategic intervention for the economically active? Exploring the role of selected English local authorities in the development of new market rental housing with pension fund investment

Drawing on qualitative data the paper explores a shift in the focus of the English local authority enabling/strategic function towards innovative models to stimulate new supply of market rented homes, with local authority pension funds as institutional investors. It is argued that these initiatives are significant in illustrating the role of local, rather than national authorities, as initiators and trailblazers of policy towards the private rented sector. The importance of policy discourses that prioritise the needs of economically active households in justifying the use of publicly owned land for the development of privately-owned rented housing is explored in the context of debates around modes of local economic development in the global context. It is suggested that although the identification of local government pension funds as institutional investors may create an impression of social accountability and an ethical dimension to these innovations, they nevertheless represent a form of marketization of socially-held assets. This raises questions about the changing nature of the enabling/strategic function within English local authorities and the extent to which the previous focus on affordable housing delivery is being diminished in the dedication of local authority resources such as land to a profit-driven form of housing supply.     

Urban and rural housing characteristics of Poland

The low availability of housing has increased in Poland since the 1960s, while other socialist nations of eastern Europe reduced their housing shortages. Housing is important irrespective of the economic system of the country, whether socialist or non-socialist. In a socialist economy housing is heavily subsidized to meet the minimal requirements for all the people. Although the expressed policy of a socialist country is to minimize the differences between the rural and urban areas, there are still basic socio-economic differences between rural and urban housing stock in Poland. This study found that there were distinct differences between rural and urban dwelling units in their age, condition, uses and composition. In rural areas more single-family units of a sub-standard nature, belonging to the building period of the 1980s, were usually found as opposed to multi-family dwelling units of a deficient nature, reconstructed and/or built during the post-World War II period in the urban areas. Further, it was found that dwelling units in rural areas use asbestos as roofing material, popular due to its low cost, and despite the hazard it poses to health.     

Hong Kong's Gating Machine

Scholars have identified ‘gating machines’ or ‘gating coalitions’ that promote gated communities. Hong Kong's high-rise housing estates in the private sector are extremely gated. Evidence presented in this paper suggests the proposition that public ownership of land, Hong Kong's land leasehold system and the government's fiscal interest in generating maximum revenue from land sales play a pivotal role in explaining gatedness. The big developers prefer and pay premiums for large sites that permit mixed use developments and high site intensity, which by use regulations are required to be gated, while their property management subsidiaries also promote gating because such estates are cheaper and easier to manage. Thus, the extent of gatedness is largely the consequence of Hong Kong's use of land as a resource, its built form, the nature of its real estate and property management industries, and the articulation of these factors.     

Housing starts and subsidized loans

This paper discusses how the total number of housing starts is affected by the presence of a system of subsidized governmental loans. More than 60 per cent of the housing starts in Norway since the Second World War have been financed through The State Housing Bank. The interest on these loans has been subsidized by the State. A cross-section analysis of loans given in 1993 is used to estimate the short-run effect on housing starts. Many households with loans at HB have total debt-to-income ratios in excess of three and loan-to-value ratios exceeding 80 per cent. I find that more than every second household which got a loan from HB in 1993 would not have been granted loans by private banks. The number of housing starts does not seem to be very sensitive to the size of subsidies; accessibility to credit seems to be more important. The paper concludes that the loans provided from a government agency have a substantial effect on the total number of housing starts. Viggo Nordvik is a research economist at the Department of Housing Research at the Norwegian Building Research Institute. His main interests are modelling of private and public rental housing markets and studies of effects and effectivity of housing policy.     

房地产中的公共经济学

当前房价屡经调控仍居高不下的主要原因,是既得利益集团阻挠对房价的抑制和各项政策未能遵循房地产中的公共经济学原理。一方面,房地产具有公共产品的属性,从而市场经济在配置此类资源时严重的失灵,必须引入政府干预;另一方面,房地产政策的主要作用方向应当是房地产商空置商品房的行为和富人们占用过多房地产的行为,而不是人们买卖房屋的行为。     

Local Authority Housing Stock Transfer in the UK: From Local Initiative to National Policy

Since 1988 stock transfer has been transformed from a local initiative into a central part of government policy for housing in the UK. It began as a largely rural and suburban phenomenon, generating substantial capital receipts, but has also become a vehicle for the regeneration of rundown urban estates. The trajectory of this process has continued to be rapid despite changes in government and devolution of housing policy in the late 1990s. This paper traces the development of the process in some detail, considering policy origins and antecedents, the emergence of national policy and its rolling out to embrace a wider range of circumstances. The impact of the policy is considered more briefly, reviewing the impact on the non-profit housing sector, on local authorities and on the key policy issues of rents and access to housing. Future prospects are reviewed in a concluding section.     

Affordable housing and planning gain,linkage fees and the rational nexus: Using the land use planning system in England and the USA to deliver housing subsidies

The paper examines how the English planning system is being used to reduce land prices for social housing schemes at a time when government subsidies to social rented housing producers are being cut and compares and contrasts this with practice within the USA. The paper describes the key characteristics of the English planning system, recent trends in English housing policy, the role the planning system plays in meeting overall housing requirements and how it has been adapted to meet specific needs. It explains the new arrangements the government has put into place to lower land prices for social housing and argues that this represents a specific tax on development values to provide subsidies for social housing and that the government has had to significantly modify the land use planning system in order to achieve its housing policy aims. The paper compares these changes with practices in the USA, particularly in relation to the ‘rational nexus’ argument. It finds significant parallels and argues that the use of the planning system to help provide affordable housing through de facto and site specific taxes on land values can be justified and does not need to be restricted to cases where the rational nexus argument applies, but that practice in each country reflects underlying differences in attitudes to development rights, market provision of housing and the role of local governments.     

新加坡大规模公共住房在城市中的空间组织和分布

发展公共住房除满足特定居民必要的居所需求外,更需要考虑如何实现公共住房在城市空间中的合理安排和满足特定居民合理居住空间的需求,这既是对城市决策者和规划部门的考验,也对完善城市公共住房机制提出了要求.作为城市国家,新加坡自1960年代中期开始开展的公共住房和新镇建设已持续了40余年,它在城市中以何种空间形态来组织、分布以及形成是考察的重点,并力图从不同视角和层面展开分析,借助地理信息系统工具提供多样化的表达.最终得出结论,各方面因素的综合作用决定了新加坡公共住房既大范围实现了国民基本住房保障,也让绝大部分居民能找到适合的空间位置.     

Housing Finance Agencies: Are They Crucial Instruments of State Government?

The recently awakened state government interest in contributing to the solution of housing problems has led to the creation of housing financing agencies (HFAs) in more than thirty states. Through the judicious use of the internal revenue code and federal housing subsidies, these public corporations have financed the development of more than 50,000 subsidized housing units between 1969 and 1973 at virtually no cost to their respective states. Whether production levels can be sustained by the more mature HFAs and programs initiated by the newer agencies remains questionable in light of recent policy developments in the federal housing establishment. It may well be that the future growth and even the survival of many state housing agencies will depend upon their respective abilities to secure state financial support. Whether they have the political clout to secure their financial futures remains in doubt.