癫痫发作间期和亚临床发作期脑SPECT痫灶定位？…

目的：研究癫痫亚临床发作期和发作间期脑ＳＰＥＣＴ的痫灶定位诊断价值。方法：建立亚临床发作期脑血流灌注显像方法，与间期显像对比分析定位；并结合脑ＣＴ、ＥＥＧ、ＥＣｏＧ和疗效综合评价其痫灶定位诊断价值。结果：间期ＳＰＥＣＴ阳性率、准确率、灵敏度分别为：９０．９１％、７７．２７％、８９．４７％，亚临床发作期分别为：９５．４５％、９０．９１％、１００％，优于传统定位诊断。亚临床发作期病灶放射性摄影比值也有     

额叶癫痫的诊断—形态与功能定位的对比

本文对２８例额叶癫痫病人的ＥＥＧ，ＣＴ，ＳＰＥＣＴ检查定位结果进行了对比研究，结果显示：８５．７％的病人发作间期和／或发作期ＥＥＧ有额叶定位征象，两者结合可提高定位诊断阳性率及准确率。ＣＴ检查仅４２．９％发现额叶损害，仍是重要辅助诊断手段。     

癫痫放电灶的EEG、SPECT与PET定位研究

目的：探讨ＥＥＧ、ＳＰＥＣＴ和ＰＥＴ在癫痫病灶定位诊断中的价值和三者之间的关系。方法：１２０例经ＭＲ和ＣＴ检查除外脑部肿瘤及脑血管畸形的癫痫病人，经电视录像－动态脑电图监测、ＳＰＥＣＴ和ＰＥＴ检查定位，比较三者定位方法的灵敏度和一致性。结果：ＰＥＴ定位的阳性率为９０８％；ＳＰＥＣＴ为７４２％；动态脑电图为６０％，三者的完全一致性为２２５％，部分一致性为５１２％。在完全一致性和部分一致性方面，ＳＰＥＣＴ与ＰＥＴ为７８３％，ＥＥＧ与ＳＰＥＣＴ、ＥＥＧ与ＰＥＴ分别为６２４％和７０８％。４例皮质脑电图（ＥＣｏＧ）证实局灶性癫痫样放电与ＰＥＴ检出的葡萄糖代谢减低区完全一致。结论：ＰＥＴ是诊断癫痫病灶灵敏而有效的方法，对癫痫病灶的定位价值优于ＥＥＧ、ＭＲ、ＣＴ和ＳＰＥＣＴ。ＥＥＧ、ＳＰＥＣＴ和ＰＥＴ三者有较高一致性，其中以ＰＥＴ与ＳＰＥＣＴ的一致性最高。     

~(18)F-FDG-PET癫痫灶定位的特异性初探(摘要)

临床上应用ＥＥＧ、ＳＰＥＣＴ、ＥＣｏＧ进行致痫灶定位有一定差异性，我们应用ＰＥＴ对１０例顽固性癫痫术前定位，来探讨ＦＤＧ—ＰＥＴ低代谢区与实际癫痫灶的相符合程度，从而衡量其定位的准确性与特异性。方法：１０例顽固性癫痫患者，强直阵挛性发作１例，复杂部分...     

多发性抽动症患者脑SPECT与CT/MR及EEG比较性研究

目的探讨脑ＳＰＥＣＴ、ＣＴ／ＭＲ、ＥＥＧ对多发性抽动症（ＴＳ）的临床诊断价值。方法对３５例ＴＳ患者进行９９ｍ锝－双半胱乙酯（９ｍＴｃ－ＥＣＤ）脑ＳＰＥＣＴ显像,并于２周内行ＣＴ／ＭＲ和ＥＥＧ检查。结果脑ＳＰＥＣＴ对ＴＳ诊断的灵敏性、特异性、准确性分别为７１４％、１００％、８３６７％;ＥＥＧ检查的阳性率４８６％,明显低于ＳＰＥＣＴ（Ｐ＜００５）;ＣＴ仅发现１例侧脑室轻度增大。结论ＳＰＥＣＴ脑显像对确定ＴＳ的病变部位优于ＥＥＧ和ＣＴ／ＭＲ。     

蝶骨电极检查对颞叶癫痫致痫灶定位的意义

分析５２例蝶骨电极对颞叶癫痫致痫灶的手术定位，发现蝶骨电极均能查出痫样放电，局限于颞叶者为９０．３８％（Ｐ＜０．０１）。手术中皮层电图（ＥＣｏＧ）及深部电极（ＤＣｏＧ）描记，证实全部病例颞叶表面或海马、杏仁核均有痫样放电，表明蝶骨电极检查的可靠性，不仅可提高颞叶癫痫脑电图的阳性率且有助于手术定位     

癫痫放电灶的EEG,SPECT与PET定位研究

目的：探讨ＥＥＧ、ＳＡＰＥＣＴ和ＰＥＴ在癫痫病灶定位诊断中的价值和三者之间的关系。方法：１２０例经ＭＲ和ＣＴ检查除外脑部肿瘤及脑血管畸形的癫痫病人，经电视录像－动态脑电图监测、ＳＰＥＣＴＴ ＰＥＴ检查定位，比较三者定位方法的灵敏度和一致性。结果：ＰＥＴ定位的阳性率为９０．８％；ＳＰＥＣＴ为７４．２％；动态脑电图为６０％三者的完全一致性为２２．５％，ＳＰＥＣＴ、ＥＥＧ与ＰＥＴ分别为６２．４％和７０．     

发作间期PET和SPECT检查对颞叶癫痫定位诊断价值

目的：探讨发作间期１８Ｆ－脱氧葡萄糖（ＦＤＧ）正电子发射断层扫描（ＰＥＴ）和９９ｍＴｃ－己撑半脱氨酸（ＥＣＤ）单光子发射断层扫描对顽固性颞叶癫痫（ＴＬＥ）的定位诊断价值。方法：５３例脑电图（ＥＥＧ）定位明确的顽固性ＴＬＥ患者分别行发作间期１８Ｆ－ＦＤＧＰＥＴ和９９ｍＴｃ－ＥＣＤＳＰＥＣＴ检查。其中２１例磁共振（ＭＲＩ）显示有结构性病变并与ＥＥＧ定位结果一致。结果：ＭＲＩ异常组均在ＰＥＴ和ＳＰＥＣＴ相应部位出现低代谢和低灌注表现。ＭＲＩ正常组，ＰＥＴ定位准确性为８４．５％，显著高于ＳＰＥＣＴ的５６．３％（Ｐ＜０．０５）。结论：对于无结构性病变的颞叶癫痫，发作间期ＰＥＴ检查有较高的定位诊断价值，ＳＰＥＣＴ的临床意义相对较小     

皮层和深部电极监测致痫灶切除治疗顽固性癫痫

目的：研究顽固性癫痫病人致痫灶的术前和术中的定位方法。方法：３４例病人接受了致痫灶切除术。作者根据（１）癫痫发作的临床特点。（２）电生理检查（包括ＥＥＧ、长时脑电监测），（３）影像学检查（ＣＴ、ＭＲ和ＤＳＡ等）进行术前定位，术中应用ＥＣｏＧ和部电极对致痫灶行精确定位。结果：术后经３个月－３年随访，无发作１６例，占４７．１％，改善１７例，占５０％；无变化１例，占２．９％。结论：术前ＥＥＧ，术中ＥＣＯ     

癫痫外科

ＰＥＴ、ＥＥＧ、ＭＲＩ在术前癫痫灶定位价值中的对比研究欧阳辉 邱炳辉　漆松涛　黄祖汉　吴湖炳　王全师　摘要　目的：探讨术中皮层脑电图（ＥＣｏＧ）、术后组织病理和随访结果为标准,比较发作间期１８ Ｆ－ＦＤＧ ＰＥＴ显像、ＥＥＧ、ＭＲＩ在难治性癫痫外科手术前癫痫灶定位中的价值。方法：术前均行发作间期１ ８Ｆ－ＦＤＧ ＰＥＴ脑显像、２～３次 ＥＥＧ和 ＭＲＩ检查,术中行ＥＣｏＧ检查,以ＰＥＴ和ＥＣｏＧ定位的癫痫灶范围行癫痫灶切除或多处软脑膜处横纤维切断术,术后切除病变组织行病理检查与外科治疗效果进行随访,比…     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Treatment Considerations in Anticonvulsant Monotherapy

Summary: The long-standing practice of polypharmacy in treating epilepsy is giving way to use of monotherapy. Monotherapy can improve seizure control as well as reduce the risk of serious idiosyncratic reactions, dose-related side effects, and complex drug interactions. Monotherapy also offers improved compliance and cost-effectiveness. The basis of monotherapy is accurate diagnosis and assessment of the patient's seizure type(s), followed by selection of a single appropriate anticonvulsant drug. Many patients currently treated with multiple anticonvulsants can be successfully converted to monotherapy with a carefully monitored program in which troublesome and redundant drugs are gradually withdrawn from the therapeutic regimen.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Anticonvulsant Drugs and Cognitive Function: A Review of the Literature

Summary: Alterations of cognitive function are separate from disturbances of behavior seen in association with epilepsy. The nature of the cognitive disability may to a certain extent depend on the seizure type. Partial seizures, mainly derived from a temporal lobe focus, impair memory tasks, while generalized seizures seem to have more effect on attentional abilities. A number of studies, reviewed in this paper, suggest that anticonvulsant drugs further impair cognitive function. Maximal impairments are seen in patients receiving polytherapy: rationalization of polytherapy improves cognitive abilities. Studies in children and adults have allowed differentiation of the effects of various commonly used antiepileptic agents. Maximal cognitive deficits are seen with. phenytoin, while phenobarbital and sodium valproate induce moderate disturbances, and carbamazepine seems relatively free from such toxicity. Further research is needed on the interrelationship between types of seizure disorders, types of anticonvulsant medications, and cognitive function.     

Dextromethorphan: Cellular Effects Reducing Neuronal Hyperactivity

Summary: Dextromethorphan is a dextrorotary morphinan without affinity for opioid receptors, commonly used as an antitussive medication. During the past 5 years, interest in the compound and its demethylated derivative, dextrorphan, has been revived because additional neuroprotective and an-tiepileptic properties were found in in vitro studies, animal experiments, and a few clinical cases. Both morphinans are able to inhibit N -methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor channels and voltage-operated calcium and sodium channels with different potencies. The inhibition of the NMDA receptor is believed to be the predominant mechanism of action responsible for the anticonvulsant and neuroprotective properties of the compounds.