Field test and evaluation of residential sprinkler systems: Part I

A series of full-scale fire tests involving sprinkler installations was conducted in 1979 and 1980 in a two-story residence in Los Angeles, CA, and in a mobile home in Charlotte, NC. Previous laboratory tests, including full-scale room fire tests, had indicated that a prototype “quick-response” sprinkler was effective in controlling residential home fires. More full-scale fire tests under less controlled and more operational conditions were considered necessary to confirm or deny these scientific and engineering judgments. The prime objective of the program was to test the performance of alternative sprinkler designs to “control” the development of fire in single-family dwellings and mobile homes. National Fire Protection Association Editor's Note: This paper is the first of three papers reporting on full-scale residential sprinker fire tests conducted under Grant 79027 for the U.S. Fire Administration by the National Fire Protection Association. In this paper, the objectives of the test program are outlined; the test facilities, Prototype sprinkler, water supplies, sprinkler system design, and instrumentation are described; and the scenarios for the total of seventy-six tests conducted are summarized. The second paper (February 1984 issue) will focus on the results of the test and the conclusions drawn from them and the third (May 1984 issue) will cover a study of the comparative activation times of sprinklers and smoke detectors in the mobile home tests. Mr. Cote is Assistant Vice President (Engineering & Technical Services) for the NFPA. He served as project manager for the test series insofar as the NFPA had overall management responsibilities for the program.     

Field test and evaluation of residential sprinkler systems: Part II

A series of National Fire Protection Association full-scale tests involving sprinkler installations was conducted in a two-story residence in Los Angeles, CA, and in a mobile home in Charlotte, NC. Previous laboratory tests, including full-scale room fire tests, had indicated that a prototype “quick-response” sprinkler was effective in controlling residential home fires. More full-scale fire tests under less controlled and more operational conditions were considered necessary to confirm or deny this conclusion. Part I of this three-part series (November 1983) explained the objectives of the tests and the test procedures that were to be followed. This second part describes the criteria used to evaluate the effectiveness of sprinkler systems using the “quick response” sprinkler in the series of seventy-six tests and the results of those tests. Part III will cover that phase of the test program that focused on a comparison of sprinkler and smoke detector activation times in the mobile home test structure. National Fire Protection Association Mr. Cote is Assistant Vice President (Engineering & Technical Services) for the NFPA. He served as project manager for the test series insofar as the NFPA had overall management responsibilities for the program. Reference: Cote Arthur E., “Field Test and Evaluation of Residential Sprinkler Systems: Part II” Fire Technology, Vol. 20, No. 1, February 1984, p. 48.     

Sprinkler performance tests—The extended coverage panacea

Performance testing of multiple extended coverage sidewall sprinklers indicates that these sprinklers, installed on spacings that are multiples of specified room areas with ceiling heights up to 9 ft, perform comparably to single sprinkler per room installations under fire conditions. Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Note: Mr. Suchomel and Mr. Castino are Associate Managing Engineer and Managing Engineer of the Laboratories' Fire Protection Department. Mr. Castino presented this paper, under the title “Fire Performance Tests of Sprinklers Under Simulated Field Installation Conditions—The Extended Coverage Panacea,” at the NFPA Fall Meeting on November 12, 1979 in Phoenix, Arizona.     

Estimating effectiveness of state-of-the-art detectors and automatic sprinklers on life safety in residential occupancies

The report provides a qualitative assessment of the life safety impact of early warning fire detection and automatic sprinkler technology in residential occupancies. This assessment is based on the results of full-scale studies and statistics on residential fire fatalities from the NFIRS data base. Estimates of the impact of three alternatives, smoke detectors, standard automatic sprinklers, and residential sprinklers, are provided for major fire hazard scenarios in residential occupancies. The results of this study indicate that significant life safety benefits can be derived from broad application of detectors and sprinklers in all residential buildings. National Bureau of Standards Note: This is a condensed version of the more detailed document NBSIR 84-2819 bearing the same title as above. The document is available in limited quantities from the National Bureau of Standards or it may be purchased through National Technical Information Services (NTIS). Reference: Edward K. Budnick, “Estimating Effectiveness of State-of-the-Art Detectors and Automatic Sprinklers on Life Safety in Residential Occupancies.” Fire Technology, Vol. 20, No. 3, August 1984, p. 5.     

Calculating fire plume characteristics in a two-layer environment

Methods are developed to determine axial gas flow conditions within a weakly buoyant plume that passes from an ambient quiescent environment, in which the plume originates, to an upper layer at elevated temperatures. The methods are appropriate for inclusion in two-layer analysis of enclosure fire. In particular, they are first steps in developing a prediction of actuation time for thermally activated automatic sprinklers exposed to an enclosure fire. Results obtained with various methods are compared with measurements in a 1.22 m diameter cylindrical enclosure. National Bureau of Standards Reference: David D. Evans, “Calculating Fire Plume Characteristics in a Two Layer Environment”, Fire Technology, Vol. 20, No. 3, August 1984, p. 39. Note: This paper is a contribution of the National Bureau of Standards and is not subject to copyright.     

Automatic Sprinkler Protection of Palletized, 55 Gallon Drum Storage of Unsaturated Polyester Resins

Unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) is used extensively in the production of composite plastic materials, such as fiberglass products. UPRs are classified by NFPA 30 as Class I flammable liquids, often Class IC, based on their styrene content. However, because UPR is a viscous liquid with a low vapor pressure and a high-density, it was postulated that UPR stored in drums might behave more like a melted plastic than a non-miscible Class IC liquid when subjected to fire. This could enable the use of reduced fire protection system designs as compared to protection schemes ordinarily required by NFPA 30 for Class IC liquids. A two-phase fire test program was performed to evaluate the fire performance of UPR and to develop suitable fire protection criteria. This testing demonstrated that palletized storage of UPR in relieving-style steel drums stacked up to three high can be adequately protected by water sprinklers discharging at a density of 0.45 gpm/ft². With this level of protection, the fire was controlled, pile stability was maintained, and ceiling temperatures remained well below critical levels. A unique concern associated with fire testing of styrene resin was the potential for the material to polymerize when heated and the associated risk of polymerization leading to violent drum failure. The test series demonstrated that drums of styrene resin may, in fact, polymerize and become rigid as a result of fire exposure however, the polymerization process did not result in any violent drum failures. In the few cases where there were drum structural ruptures, the polymerization process was not a factor, and sprinklers were able to control the fire. The tests demonstrated that UPRs behave quite differently than typical flammable liquids.     

Modeling fire spread in buildings

A computer-based technique for analyzing the spread of fire through a multicompartment building is described. The technique is a comparative tool for evaluating alternative fire protection strategies, and quantifies the economic and safety performance characteristics of a building. Some results are shown of its application to a four-story office building. Reference: D. G. Elms, A. H. Buchanan, and J. W. Dusing, “Modeling Fire Spread in Buildings,” Fire Technology, Vol. 20, No. 1, February 1984, p. 11.     

A New Test to Evaluate the Fire Performance of Residential Sprinklers

Fire tests were conducted using the Underwriters Laboratories (UL) UL 1626 Fire Test for residential sprinklers. The results indicated that sprinkler performance in UL 1626 could not be reproduced due to differences in material flammability properties. This conclusion was reached in a cooperative effort with UL. Factory Mutual Research's Approval fire test that had been redesigned based on UL 1626 was thus subject to the same variability. A new fire test was developed using fuel with controlled material flammability parameters based upon the use of the ASTM E2058 Fire Propagation Apparatus. The new fuel package consists of a wood crib (one half the height of the one which was used in UL 1626) supported over a pan with heptane, two polyether foam cushions (about 60% greater in density than the foam previously used in UL 1626) measuring 34 in by 30 in by 3 in (864 mm by 762 mm by 76 mm) and in (6 mm) Douglas Fir plywood paneling. The new fire test was shown in a series of sprinklered fire tests to provide a reproducible challenge to residential sprinklers comparable to that observed in the Factory Mutual Research and the Los Angeles Residential Test Programs.     

Mass fire characteristics in large-scale tests

The suburban sprawl into rural and wildland areas increases the potential for damage from mass fires, either through nuclear attack or natural disaster. But defenses against the devastating effects of mass fires suffer from lack of quantitative information on behavior of large intense fires. Laboratory-scale testing is not enough —it is very likely that a different set of controlling factors take over when a fire grows to a certain size and intensity. A series of large-scale tests using woodland fuels in ordered piles simulating built-up residential areas has been started to provide the missing data. Preliminary tests in the series are reported here. Note: This paper was presented at a fire research symposium sponsored by the Office of Civil Defense at Washington, D.C., May 17, 1965. It is based on a report “Mass Fires and Fire Behavior” (U.S.Forest Service Research Paper PSW-19, 1964, Contract Nos. OCD-OS-62-173 and OCD-PS-64-32 for the Office of Civil Defense) and is availiable from the Clearinghouse of Federal Scientific and Technical Information, U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22151. Note: This paper was presented at a fire research symposium sponsored by the Office of Civil Defense at Washington, D.C., May 17, 1965. It is based on a report “Mass Fires and Fire Behavior” (U.S.Forest Service Research Paper PSW-19, 1964, Contract Nos. OCD-OS-62-173 and OCD-PS-64-32 for the Office of Civil Defense) and is availiable from the Clearinghouse of Federal Scientific and Technical Information, U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22151.     

The Ellis parkway and gary dwelling burns

The author reports on two full-scale experimental building fires, the results of which suggest that fire spread through a subdivided structure can be described as a series of predictable flashovers. IIT Research Institute Note: The experimental fires discussed in this paper were mentioned briefly in “Studies of Building Fires with Models,” F. Salzberg and T. E. Waterman,Fire Technology, Vol. 2, No. 3 (August 1966), p. 198.     

Fast response sprinklers in patient room fires

The Center for Fire Research conducted a series of tests which examined the use of automatic sprinklers in patient room fires. The fullscale fire tests were conducted in a patient room, corridor, and lobby test arrangement. Center for Fire Research National Engineering Laboratory National Bureau of Standards Note: This paper is a contribution of the National Bureau of Standards and is not subject to copyright.     

Uncertainty in Estimating the Fire Control Effectiveness of Sprinklers from New Zealand Fire Incident Reports

The current state of fire sprinkler effectiveness information has been found to be a limiting factor when comparing the fire risk for alternative building designs in New Zealand (Determination 2005/109: single means of escape from a high-rise apartment building. Department of Building and Housing, Wellington, 7). Data on the past performance of systems in real fires is one of the best sources of information to estimate future performance, but there has not been a detailed study on sprinkler effectiveness data from fire incidents in New Zealand published since Marryatt’s work (Fire: a century of automatic sprinkler protection-revised. Australian Fire Protection Association, Melbourne, 13), which was last updated in 1986 and included data from Australia. The current research looks at the quality and quantity of data available on sprinkler effectiveness from New Zealand Fire Service (NZFS) incident reports over the period of 2001 to 2010 to evaluate the data’s usefulness for risk-informed building fire safety design. A comparison is made between the number of sprinklers reported activated in the NZFS dataset, Marryatt’s study, guidance from PD 7974-7:2003 (PD 7974-7:2003: the application of fire safety engineering principles to fire safety design of buildings. Probabilistic Risk Assessment, London, 3), and NFPA data (U.S. experience with sprinklers and other automatic fire extinguishing equipment. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, 12). Proposals to improve the collection and reporting process to increase the informative value of future NZFS data for risk-informed fire safety design are presented.     

Revisiting Our 1991 Paper on Fire Risk Assessment

The authors revisit their 1991 Bigglestone Award winning Fire Technology paper “Fire Risk Analysis: General Conceptual Framework for Describing Models” and comment on what has changed, what has evolved, and what has remained the same in our understanding of good practice in the conduct of fire risk analysis. Also, the authors refer to the present issues and the future prospects in this regard.     

Post-crash fire testing of titanium fuselages

The problem … maintain fuselage integrity and a survivable cabin environment during a post-crash fire. Its high melting point made titanium an attractive candidate for the large-scale test discussed here. Note: This paper is an adaptation of Report No. FAA-RD-71-3, “Titanium Fuselage Environmental Conditions in Post-Crash Fires,” prepared by the author for the Federal Aviation Administration. The report was also the basis for Mr. Sarkos’ presentation at the 75th Annual Meeting of the National Fire Protection Association in San Francisco on May 18, 1971.     

Fire Safety Code for Historic Structures

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) periodically updates each fire safety code and standard that it develops. Acknowledging the need for a document to prescribe fire safety for historic buildings, a complete and thorough rewrite of NFPA 914 was undertaken. The former recommended practice has now been issued as the Code for Fire Protection in Historic Structures. The 2001 edition identifies a process for analyzing fire safety needs in historic buildings, outlines generic approaches to dealing with specific provisions of other codes that may endanger historic integrity, and includes a performance-based approach to fire safety in historic buildings. This paper describes the background, revision process, and current proposed content NFPA 914.     

Fire resistance versus flame spread resistance

Current fire resistance tests of compartment boundary materials should be referred to as “fire spread resistance” tests. Unless additional fire protection measures have been taken, compartment boundaries are rarely able to prevent the spread of fire out of the space of origin. The true fire resistance of all key building components, therefore, must be judged on ability of those components to withstand fire exposure from two sides. Note: Dr. Harmathy is a research officer in the Fire Research Section, Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa.     

Analysis of Fireground Standard Operating Guidelines/Procedures Compliance for Austin Fire Department

There is general belief that the rate of firefighter injury can be lowered by creating fire service cultures where firefighters more closely follow their training and standard operating guidelines (SOGs). That is, there is a desire to minimize cases where firefighters operate outside of the SOGs. Interestingly, there is scant data on the rate of adherence to SOGs in the fire service. In an attempt to better understand the compliance to fireground standard operating guidelines, an analysis of firefighter compliance to Austin Fire Department’s guidelines was performed. We analyze over 1000 survey responses taken from Austin firefighters on fireground operations over a 1.5 year time frame. This paper does not critique the department’s procedures or the officers’ actions, but simply reports the compliance data and discusses some implications of the data. Austin Fire Department (AFD) in the process of creating their current version of standard operating guidelines developed an initial tactical function assignment rule called the “90/10” rule. This rule states that in 90% of situations, personnel are expected to comply with their SOG specified initial tactical functions. Although this rule was proposed several years ago there had not been testing to indicate if the rule was being upheld. By analyzing the initial tactical functions, we first discuss the rate of adherence to the 90/10 rule. We then conducted a more in-depth study to test if other SOG directives (e.g., tactics) are complied to with the same frequency. There were three specific tactics studied – a size-up tactic, a primary firefighter safety tactic, and a fire attack tactic - which had varying ranges of compliance compared to the “90/10” rule. After examining the compliance data, computer simulations were conducted on the fire attack tactic to better understand how a change in the tactic could affect firefighter working conditions.     

The use of AFFF in sprinkler systems

This paper reports the results of a series of fire tests to measure the effectiveness of a 1% aqueous film forming foam concentrate against flammable hydrocarbon fires when applied through conventional, automatic, wet-pipe sprinkler systems using closed sprinklers. Note: The author presented this paper at the NFPA annual meeting held in Chicago, Illinois in May 1975.     

Human behavior and fires: An introduction

From a selected list of references, the author traces the developments in the research into human behavior in fire situations. This paper includes research approaches, people and design as related to the evacuation process, panic, behavioral tendencies, and decision-making, citing references from the author's paper:Human Behavior and Fire Emergencies: An Annotated Bibliography, NBSIR 81-2438. National Bureau of Standards Reference: Paulsen, R. L., “Human Behavior and Fires: An Introduction”, Fire Technology, Vol. 20, No. 2, May 1984, p. 15.