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1.
Hitchcock (2001a) argues that the distinction between singular and general causation conflates the two distinctions ‘actual causation vs. causal tendencies’ and ‘wide vs. narrow causation’. Based on a recent regularity account of causation I will show that Hitchcock’s introduction of the two distinctions is an unnecessary multiplication of causal concepts. 相似文献
2.
Currently, standards for web services are being developed via three different initiatives (W3C, Semantic web services and
ebXML). To the best of our knowledge, no theoretical perspectives underlie these standardization efforts. Without the benefit
of a strong theoretical basis, the results, within and across these initiatives, have remained piecemeal. We suggest ‘Language–Action
Theories’ as a plausible perspective that can effectively define, assess and refine web services standards. In this paper,
we first investigate the existing initiatives to identify commonalities that point to theories of ‘Language–Action’ as an
appropriate theoretical basis for web services standards. Next, we adapt work from these theories to develop a comprehensive
reference framework for understanding web services standards. Finally, we use this reference framework to assess the three
initiatives, and analyze the findings to provide insights for future development and refinement of web services standards.
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3.
This paper reports on a survey amongst software groups in a multinational organization. The survey was initiated by the Software
Process Improvement (SPI) Steering Committee of Philips, a committee that monitors the status and quality of software process
improvement in the global organization. The paper presents and discusses improvement targets, improvement drivers, and metrics,
and the degree to that they are being recognized in the software groups. The improvement targets ‘increase predictability’
and ‘reduce defects’ are being recognized as specifically important, joined for Capability Maturity Model (CMM) level three
groups by ‘increase productivity’ and ‘reduce lead time’. The set of improvement drivers that was used in the survey appears
to be valid. Three improvement drivers that were rated highest were: ‘commitment of engineering management’, ‘commitment of
development staff, and ‘sense of urgency’. Finally, it could be seen that metrics activity, both in size and in quality, increases
significantly for CMM level three groups. However, no consensus regarding what metrics should be used can be seen.
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4.
This paper presents a case study of a 79 year old video blogger called ‘Geriatric1927’, and his use of the video sharing website,
YouTube. Analysis of his first eight video blogs, and the subsequent text responses, reveals opportunities of this medium
for intergenerational contact, reminiscence, reciprocal learning and co-creation of content, suggesting that older people
can be highly motivated to use computers for social contact. The paper concludes by noting the importance of technologies
that are socially engaging and meaningful for older people, and pointing to ways in which the social life of YouTube might
be better promoted on its interface.
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5.
A number of mobile applications have emerged that allow users to locate one another. However, people have expressed concerns
about the privacy implications associated with this class of software, suggesting that broad adoption may only happen to the
extent that these concerns are adequately addressed. In this article, we report on our work on P eopleF inder, an application that enables cell phone and laptop users to selectively share their locations with others (e.g. friends,
family, and colleagues). The objective of our work has been to better understand people’s attitudes and behaviors towards
privacy as they interact with such an application, and to explore technologies that empower users to more effectively and
efficiently specify their privacy preferences (or “policies”). These technologies include user interfaces for specifying rules
and auditing disclosures, as well as machine learning techniques to refine user policies based on their feedback. We present
evaluations of these technologies in the context of one laboratory study and three field studies.
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6.
Negative attitudes toward robots are considered as one of the psychological factors preventing humans from interacting with
robots in the daily life. To verify their influence on humans‘ behaviors toward robots, we designed and executed experiments
where subjects interacted with Robovie, which is being developed as a platform for research on the possibility of communication
robots. This paper reports and discusses the results of these experiments on correlation between subjects’ negative attitudes
and their behaviors toward robots. Moreover, it discusses influences of gender and experience of real robots on their negative
attitudes and behaviors toward robots.
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7.
To determine the maximum separation between events for nonrepetitive systems with max and linear constraints, there are the
“iterative tightening from above” (ITA) approach and the “iterative tightening from below” (ITB) approach. Since such systems
can be formulated as systems constrained by min–max inequalities, this paper gives an algorithm named MMIMaxSep for solving min–max inequalities. The algorithm is a generalization and a mathematically elegant reformulation of Yen et
al.’s MaxSeparation algorithm which uses the ITB approach. Our numerical experiments indicate that MMIMaxSep is very efficient. Moreover, MMIMaxSep has a unique advantage of being able to directly handle tree-represented min–max functions, and its complexity is closely
related to the complexity of computing cycle time of min–max functions.
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8.
A major challenge in the field of software engineering is to make users trust the software that they use in their every day
activities for professional or recreational reasons. Trusting software depends on various elements, one of which is the protection
of user privacy. Protecting privacy is about complying with user’s desires when it comes to handling personal information.
Users’ privacy can also be defined as the right to determine when, how and to what extend information about them is communicated
to others. Current research stresses the need for addressing privacy issues during the system design rather than during the
system implementation phase. To this end, this paper describes PriS, a security requirements engineering method, which incorporates
privacy requirements early in the system development process. PriS considers privacy requirements as organisational goals
that need to be satisfied and adopts the use of privacy-process patterns as a way to: (1) describe the effect of privacy requirements
on business processes; and (2) facilitate the identification of the system architecture that best supports the privacy-related
business processes. In this way, PriS provides a holistic approach from ‘high-level’ goals to ‘privacy-compliant’ IT systems.
The PriS way-of-working is formally defined thus, enabling the development of automated tools for assisting its application.
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9.
This paper presents a formal reconstruction of a Dutch civil legal case in Prakken’s formal model of adjudication dialogues.
The object of formalisation is the argumentative speech acts exchanged during the dispute by the adversaries and the judge.
The goal of this formalisation is twofold: to test whether AI & law models of legal dialogues in general, and Prakken’s model
in particular, are suitable for modelling particular legal procedures; and to learn about the process of formalising an actual
legal dispute.
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10.
We describe the first shared task for figurative language resolution, which was organised within SemEval-2007 and focused
on metonymy. The paper motivates the linguistic principles of data sampling and annotation and shows the task’s feasibility
via human agreement. The five participating systems mainly used supervised approaches exploiting a variety of features, of
which grammatical relations proved to be the most useful. We compare the systems’ performance to automatic baselines as well
as to a manually simulated approach based on selectional restriction violations, showing some limitations of this more traditional
approach to metonymy recognition. The main problem supervised systems encountered is data sparseness, since metonymies in
general tend to occur more rarely than literal uses. Also, within metonymies, the reading distribution is skewed towards a
few frequent metonymy types. Future task developments should focus on addressing this issue.
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11.
This paper addresses the possibility of measuring perceived usability in an absolute way. It studies the impact of the nature
of the tasks performed in perceived software usability evaluation, using for this purpose the subjective evaluation of an
application’s performance via the Software Usability Measurement Inventory (SUMI). The paper reports on the post-hoc analysis
of data from a productivity study for testing the effect of changes in the graphical user interface (GUI) of a market leading
drafting application. Even though one would expect similar evaluations of an application’s usability for same releases, the
analysis reveals that the output of this subjective appreciation is context sensitive and therefore mediated by the research
design. Our study unmasked a significant interaction between the nature of the tasks used for the usability evaluation and
how users evaluate the performance of this application. This interaction challenges the concept of absolute benchmarking in
subjective usability evaluation, as some software evaluation methods aspire to provide, since subjective measurement of software
quality will be affected most likely by the nature of the testing materials used for the evaluation.
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12.
The problem of ‘information content’ of an information system appears elusive. In the field of databases, the information
content of a database has been taken as the instance of a database. We argue that this view misses two fundamental points.
One is a convincing conception of the phenomenon concerning information in databases, especially a properly defined notion
of ‘information content’. The other is a framework for reasoning about information content. In this paper, we suggest a modification
of the well known definition of ‘information content’ given by Dretske(Knowledge and the flow of information,1981). We then
define what we call the ‘information content inclusion’ relation (IIR for short) between two random events. We present a set
of inference rules for reasoning about information content, which we call the IIR Rules. Then we explore how these ideas and
the rules may be used in a database setting to look at databases and to derive otherwise hidden information by deriving new
relations from a given set of IIR. A prototype is presented, which shows how the idea of IIR-Reasoning might be exploited
in a database setting including the relationship between real world events and database values.
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13.
Listening to music on personal, digital devices whilst mobile is an enjoyable, everyday activity. We explore a scheme for
exploiting this practice to immerse listeners in navigation cues. Our prototype, ONTRACK, continuously adapts audio, modifying
the spatial balance and volume to lead listeners to their target destination. First we report on an initial lab-based evaluation
that demonstrated the approach’s efficacy: users were able to complete tasks within a reasonable time and their subjective
feedback was positive. Encouraged by these results we constructed a handheld prototype. Here, we discuss this implementation
and the results of field-trials. These indicate that even with a low-fidelity realisation of the concept, users can quite
effectively navigate complicated routes.
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14.
The complexity of group dynamics occurring in small group interactions often hinders the performance of teams. The availability
of rich multimodal information about what is going on during the meeting makes it possible to explore the possibility of providing
support to dysfunctional teams from facilitation to training sessions addressing both the individuals and the group as a whole.
A necessary step in this direction is that of capturing and understanding group dynamics. In this paper, we discuss a particular
scenario, in which meeting participants receive multimedia feedback on their relational behaviour, as a first step towards
increasing self-awareness. We describe the background and the motivation for a coding scheme for annotating meeting recordings
partially inspired by the Bales’ Interaction Process Analysis. This coding scheme was aimed at identifying suitable observable
behavioural sequences. The study is complemented with an experimental investigation on the acceptability of such a service.
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15.
In the near future, our life will normally be surrounded with fairly complicated artifacts, enabled by the autonomous robot
and brain–machine interface technologies. In this paper, we argue that what we call the responsibility flaw problem and the
inappropriate use problem need to be overcome in order for us to benefit from complicated artifacts. In order to solve these
problems, we propose an approach to endowing artifacts with an ability of socially communicating with other agents based on
the artifact-as-a-half-mirror metaphor. The idea is to have future artifacts behave according to the hybrid intention composed
of the owner’s intention and the social rules. We outline the approach and discuss its feasibility together with preliminary
work.
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16.
It is commonplace in cognitive science that concepts are individuated in terms of the roles they play in the cognitive lives
of thinkers, a view that Jerry Fodor has recently been dubbed ‘Concept Pragmatism’. Quinean critics of Pragmatism have long
argued that it founders on its commitment to the analytic/synthetic distinction, since without such a distinction there is
plausibly no way to distinguish constitutive from non-constitutive roles in cognition. This paper considers Fodor’s empirical
arguments against analyticity, and in particular his arguments against lexical decomposition and definitions, and argues that
Concept Pragmatists have two viable options with respect to them. First, Concept Pragmatists can confront them head-on, and
argue that they do not show that lexical items are semantically primitive or that lexical concepts are internally unstructured.
Second, Pragmatists may accept that these arguments show that lexical concepts are atomic, but insist that this need not entail
that Pragmatism is false. For there is a viable version of Concept Pragmatism that does not take lexical items to be semantically
structured or lexical concepts to be internally structured. Adopting a version of Pragmatism that takes meaning relations
to be specified by inference rules, or meaning postulates, allows one to accept the empirical arguments in favor of Concept
Atomism, while at the same time deny that such arguments show that there are no analyticities. The paper concludes by responding
to Fodor’s recent objection that such a version of Concept Pragmatism has unhappy consequences concerning the relation between
concept constitution and concept possession.
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17.
A computer can come to understand natural language the same way Helen Keller did: by using “syntactic semantics”—a theory
of how syntax can suffice for semantics, i.e., how semantics for natural language can be provided by means of computational
symbol manipulation. This essay considers real-life approximations of Chinese Rooms, focusing on Helen Keller’s experiences
growing up deaf and blind, locked in a sort of Chinese Room yet learning how to communicate with the outside world. Using
the SNePS computational knowledge-representation system, the essay analyzes Keller’s belief that learning that “everything
has a name” was the key to her success, enabling her to “partition” her mental concepts into mental representations of: words,
objects, and the naming relations between them. It next looks at Herbert Terrace’s theory of naming, which is akin to Keller’s,
and which only humans are supposed to be capable of. The essay suggests that computers at least, and perhaps non-human primates,
are also capable of this kind of naming.
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18.
We consider the emergence of hybrid ecologies, which marry mixed reality environments and ubiquitous computing environments
together to bridge the physical-digital divide. Hybrid ecologies are new class of digital ecology that merge multiple environments,
physical and digital, together. Collaboration in these emerging environments is characterized by ‘fragmented interaction’
in that it is mediated by interaction mechanisms that are differentially distributed. Unpacking the collaborative nature of
fragmented interaction requires that we uncover the ordinary interactional competences that users exploit to make differentially
distributed mechanisms of interaction work and the distributed practices that articulate ‘seamful’ representations and provide
for awareness and coordination.
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19.
This paper discusses how a new technology (designed to help pupils with learning about Shakespeare’s Macbeth) is introduced and integrated into existing classroom practices. It reports on the ways through which teachers and pupils
figure out how to use the software as part of their classroom work. Since teaching and learning in classrooms are achieved
in and through educational tasks (what teachers instruct pupils to do) the analysis explicates some notable features of a particular task (storyboarding one
scene from the play). It is shown that both ‘setting the task’ and ‘following the task’ have to be locally and practically
accomplished and that tasks can operate as a sense-making device for pupils’ activities. Furthermore, what the task ‘is’,
is not entirely established through the teacher’s initial formulation, but progressively clarified through pupils’ subsequent
work, and in turn ratified by the teacher.
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20.
We described in earlier publications the principles of a system where Internet content would be pre-cached, based on contextual
information obtained from a user’s electronic calendar. The model for such a system envisioned a set of cooperating agents,
distributed on a user’s desktop and mobile device, which would be responsible for making decisions on the context and preferences
of the user, and downloading the relevant internet content through a land-based broadband connection and storing it on the
mobile device. This paper presents and discusses established pre-caching techniques and their suitability for use on mobile
information access scenarios. It proceeds in describing the implementation details of an alternative approach, a calendar-based
pre-caching system and presents the findings of tests that were made with human subjects on such a system.
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