Modelling evaporation using an artificial neural network algorithm

This paper investigates the prediction of Class A pan evaporation using the artificial neural network (ANN) technique. The ANN back propagation algorithm has been evaluated for its applicability for predicting evaporation from minimum climatic data. Four combinations of input data were considered and the resulting values of evaporation were analysed and compared with those of existing models. The results from this study suggest that the neural computing technique could be employed successfully in modelling the evaporation process from the available climatic data set. However, an analysis of the residuals from the ANN models developed revealed that the models showed significant error in predictions during the validation, implying loss of generalization properties of ANN models unless trained carefully. The study indicated that evaporation values could be reasonably estimated using temperature data only through the ANN technique. This would be of much use in instances where data availability is limited. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A general model for estimating actual evaporation from non-saturated surfaces

Based on energy balance equation and mass transfer equation, a general model to estimate actual evaporation from non-saturated surfaces was derived. Making use of two concepts, “relative evaporation” and “relative drying power”, a relationship was established to account for the departure from saturated conditions. Using this model, the actual evaporation (evapotranspiration) can be calculated without the need of potential evaporation estimation. Furthermore, the model requires only a few meteorological parameters that are readily and routinely obtainable at standard weather stations. Based on nearly 30 years data of 432 meteorological stations and 512 hydrological stations in China, in combined with GIS, nine typical river basins were selected. Using the data of the selected river basins, the model was tested. The results show that the actual evaporation rate can be estimated with an error of less than 10% in most areas of China, except few years in the Yellow River Basin.     

川西亚高山三个森林群落的湿林冠蒸发速率

于3个假说和林冠上方2m处的气象变量，采用Penman-Monteith组合模型估算了一个生长季节内川西亚高山林区分别以云杉(SF)、冷杉(FF)和白桦(BF)为优势树种的3个林分的湿林冠蒸发速率(Er)。研究结果表明，SF、FF和BF的湿林冠蒸发量(E)分别为44．51mm、88．51mm和57．8mm，分别占总降雨量的9．2％、16．6％和10．2％。与SF和BF相比，FF具有最高的月平均Er和蒸发比例。SF、FF和BF的平均Er分别为0．097mm／h(变化范围：0．028-0．487mm／h)、0．242mm／h(变化范围：0．068～0．711mm／h)和0．149mm／h(0．060～0．576mm／h)。最高和最低的月平均Er分别在6月(SF、FF和BF分别为0．120mm／h、0．317mm／h和0．169mm／h)和10月(SF、FF和BF分别为0．083mm／h、0．187mm／h和0．101mm／h)。8：00至16：00期间的平均点Er显著高于0：00至8：00以及16：00至0：00期间的平均Er。Er显著的日变化和月变化主要归因于林冠上方的太阳辐射、空气温度和相对湿度的变化。     

西太平洋副热带高压对华北地区降水蒸发差的影响

采用小波相关和交叉小波变换等方法, 分析了西太平洋副热带高压脊线和北界位置变化对华北地区降水蒸发差的影响。结果表明, 2000年以来华北区南部的水资源短缺问题有所缓解, 但以北京为中心的华北区东北部仍处于持续缺水期; 华北地区降水蒸发差与副热带高压脊线及北界位置变化相关密切, 存在年际和年代际尺度的显著相关振荡, 与副热带高压脊线的年代际尺度相关凝聚性最强; 时域中年际尺度相关存在局部化特征, 年代际尺度相关具有阶段性。分析认为, 2000年以来副热带高压脊线和北界位置偏北并维持反气旋型环流, 有利于水汽向华北输送, 使得华北降水增多, 是近年来华北中南部降水蒸发差增大的主要原因; 而东亚季风减弱不利于西南气流的水汽输送, 以及蒙古高原显著增暖导致蒸发增大等因素, 使得华北东北部仍处于持续缺水期。     

A THEORETICAL BASIS FOR THE PRIESTLEY-TAYLOR COEFFICIENT

The relationship between potential evaporation and arealevaporation is assessed using a closed-box model of the convectiveboundary layer (CBL). Potential evaporation is defined as theevaporation that would occur from a hypothetical saturated surface,with radiative properties similar to those of the whole area, and smallenough that the excess moisture flux does not modify thecharacteristics of the CBL. It is shown that the equilibrium rate ofpotential evaporation is given by Ep0=E0,where E0 is the equilibrium evaporation (radiative termof the Penman formula), and is a coefficient similar to thePriestley-Taylor coefficient. Its expression is , where is the areal surface resistance, r_a is the localaerodynamic resistance, and is the dimensionless slope of thesaturation specific humidity at the temperature of the air. Itscalculated value is around 1 for any saturated surface surrounded bywater, about 1.3 for saturated grass surrounded by well-watered grassand can be greater than 3 over saturated forest surrounded by forest.The formulation obtained provides a theoretical basis to the overallmean value of 1.26, empirically found by Priestley and Taylor for thecoefficient . Examining, at the light of this formulation, thecomplementary relationship between potential and actual evaporation(as proposed by Bouchet and Morton), it appears that the sum ofthese two magnitudes is not a constant at equilibrium, but depends onthe value of the areal surface resistance.     

1960年以来新疆地区蒸发皿蒸发与实际蒸发之间的关系

利用中国新疆地区1960-2005 年109 个设有蒸发皿蒸发观测的常规气象站资料, 并结 合不同驱动场和不同陆面模式的模拟结果, 对蒸发皿蒸发及模拟的实际蒸发的年、各个季节 的变化及其它们的相互联系进行了详细的分析和讨论。结果发现, 在过去的46 年里, 年蒸发 皿蒸发总体上都表现为明显的下降趋势, 而实际蒸发在总体上显著上升, 与蒸发皿蒸发的变 化趋势相反。在80 年代中后期, 蒸发皿蒸发、实际蒸发和降水的转折点(1986 年) 一致, 进 一步说就是无论在转折点的前后, 降水增加的转折性变化与模拟的实际蒸发的转折性增加变 化一致, 而与蒸发皿蒸发减小的转折性变化相反, 这表明, 在新疆地区, 蒸发皿蒸发和实际 蒸散之间具有相反的变化关系, 这支持Brutsaert and Parlange 提出的蒸发皿蒸发和实际蒸散 之间具有互补相关关系(变化趋势相反) 的理论。分析气温、降水、湿度、云量和日照时数等 环境变量的变化趋势发现： 降水、云量等表征大气中水分特征的变量表现为明显的上升趋势, 这也间接的证明了蒸发皿蒸发和实际蒸散之间存在相反的关系, 而与各个环境变量之间相关 系数的分析则表明, 气温日较差、风速、低云量和降水是与蒸发皿蒸发和实际蒸发关系最紧 密的环境因子, 它们的变化可能是导致蒸发皿蒸发和蒸散量变化的原因。     

A new approach to estimate canopy evaporation and canopy interception capacity from evapotranspiration and sap flow measurements during and following wetting

Canopy interception and its evaporation into the atmosphere during irrigation or a rainfall event are important in irrigation scheduling, but are challenging to estimate using conventional methods. This study introduces a new approach to estimate the canopy interception from measurements of actual total evapotranspiration (ET) using eddy covariance and estimation of the transpiration from measurements of sap flow. The measurements were conducted over a small‐scale sprinkler‐irrigated cotton field before, during and after sprinkler irrigation. Evaporation and sap flow dynamics during irrigation show that the total ET during irrigation increased significantly because of the evaporation of free intercepted water while transpiration was suppressed almost completely. The difference between actual ET and transpiration (sap flow) during and immediately following irrigation (post irrigation) represents the total canopy evaporation while the canopy interception capacity was calculated as the difference between actual ET and transpiration (sap flow) during drying (post irrigation) following cessation of the irrigation. The canopy evaporation of cotton canopy was calculated as 0.8 mm, and the interception capacity was estimated to be 0.31 mm of water. The measurement uncertainty in both the non‐dimensional ET and non‐dimensional sap flow was shown to be very low. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

空气动力学阻抗的测量研究

利用涡旋相关方法和蒸发皿方法分别测量了裸地和玉米田的空气动力学阻抗, 分析了空气动力学阻抗的日变化特征, 同时对两种测量方法进行了比较。结果表明:实测空气动力学阻抗的日变化比较明显, 但变化幅度不大 (0~200 s/m)。两种方法得到的空气动力学阻抗具有可比性, 但蒸发皿方法测量的空气动力学阻抗普遍小于涡旋相关方法的测量值。     

西藏盐湖卤水蒸发速率的实验与计算

本文对国内外水面蒸发速率的研究进行了综述,总结了西藏扎布耶盐湖Φ20cm蒸发皿淡水蒸发量与气温、降水、日照的相关关系,提出了改进的扩展彭曼公式法,用于较为准确地计算盐湖卤水蒸发速率,并以西藏扎布耶盐湖为例计算了盐湖卤水蒸发。该方法可以应用于盐湖湖面蒸发与水量均衡计算,也可以应用于盐湖开发中的盐田工艺设计计算与实际生产应用。     

华南秋季蒸发量的时空演变特征

利用华南区域66个气象站点1960～2004年的观测数据分析了华南秋季蒸发皿蒸发量和实际蒸发量的时空变化.分析结果表明:华南中部和西北部是华南秋季蒸发皿蒸发量的两个主要气候变异中心区,华南中部秋季蒸发皿蒸发量具有以年代际变化为主的特征,并且在45年内总体上呈下降趋势.在影响蒸发皿蒸发量的因子中,太阳辐射与蒸发皿蒸发量的相关性最好,呈显著的正相关.对实际蒸发量而言,华南中部和西部偏西地区则是两个主要的变异中心,两区域的秋季实际蒸发量具有以年际变化为主的特征,降水对华南秋季实际蒸发量的影响最为显著,华南秋季实际蒸发量一般都在蒸发皿蒸发量的40%左右,并且比值总体上呈现微弱的由南向北递增趋势.