A review of workplace aerosol sampling procedures and their relevance to the assessment of beryllium exposures

Standardized conventions governing the fractions of airborne particles that can penetrate the human head airways, the thoracic airways and the alveolar spaces have been internationally (although not universally) adopted. Several agencies involved in setting limit values for occupational exposure concentrations have taken these conventions into account when considering the appropriate standard for specific chemicals, in order to ensure the standards are biologically relevant. A convention is selected based on the characteristic health effects, and forms the basis of measurement against the limiting concentration value. In order to assess exposure for comparison to this metric or any other purposes, it is necessary to choose a sampler whose performance matches the convention, and protocols have been developed and used to test sampler performance. Several aerosol sampling devices are available, nominally at least, for each of the conventions. Some considerations important to the sampling of airborne particles containing beryllium with regard to the sampling conventions, the test protocols and sampler performance are discussed.     

Meta‐analytic tests of relationships between organizational justice and citizenship behavior: testing agent‐system and shared‐variance models

Research on the unique effects of different types of perceived fairness on citizenship behavior that benefits individuals (organizational citizenship behavior (OCB‐I) and organizations (OCB‐O) has produced mixed results. We assert that how OCB‐O and OCB‐I are conceptualized affects the patterns of results, and we hypothesize that, when OCB is conceptualized appropriately, an agent‐system model is supported (interactional and procedural justice are the strongest unique predictors of OCB‐I and OCB‐O, respectively). We also hypothesize that shared variance among the justice types explains additional variance in OCB. Analyses of semi‐ partial correlations conducted on meta‐analytic coefficients supported our hypotheses. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Volatile Organic Compounds from Coal Tar and Soil Vapor Samples at MGP Sites

This study characterized organic compounds found in New York State manufactured gas plant (MGP) coal tar vapors using controlled laboratory experiments from four separate MGP sites. In addition, a limited number of deep (0.3–1.2 m above coal tar) and shallow (1.2–2.4 m above coal tar) soil vapor samples were collected above the in situ coal tar source at three of these sites. A total of 29 compounds were consistently detected in the laboratory-generated coal tar vapors at 50°C, whereas 24 compounds were detected at 10°C. The compounds detected in the field sample results were inconsistent with the compounds found in the laboratory-generated samples. Concentrations of compounds in the shallow soil vapor sample were either non-detectable or substantially lower than those found in deeper samples, suggesting attenuation in the vadose zone. Laboratory-generated data at 50°C compared the (% non-aromatic)/(% aromatic) ratio and indicated that this ratio may provide good discrimination between coal tar vapor and common petroleum distillates.     

Effect of fresh green waste and green waste compost on mineral nitrogen, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide from a Vertisol

Incorporation of organic waste amendments to a horticultural soil, prior to expected risk periods, could immobilise mineral N, ultimately reducing nitrogen (N) losses as nitrous oxide (N₂O) and leaching. Two organic waste amendments were selected, a fresh green waste (FGW) and green waste compost (GWC) as they had suitable biochemical attributes to initiate N immobilisation into the microbial biomass and organic N forms. These characteristics include a high C:N ratio (FGW 44:1, GWC 35:1), low total N (<1%), and high lignin content (>14%). Both products were applied at 3 t C/ha to a high N (plus N fertiliser) or low N (no fertiliser addition) Vertisol soil in PVC columns. Cumulative N₂O production over the 28 day incubation from the control soil was 1.5 mg/N₂O/m², and 11 mg/N₂O/m² from the control + N. The N₂O emission decreased with GWC addition (P < 0.05) for the high N soil, reducing cumulative N₂O emissions by 38% by the conclusion of the incubation. Analysis of mineral N concentrations at 7, 14 and 28 days identified that both FGW and GWC induced microbial immobilisation of N in the first 7 days of incubation regardless of whether the soil environment was initially high or low in N; with the FGW immobilising up to 30% of available N. It is likely that the reduced mineral N due to N immobilisation led to a reduced substrate for N₂O production during the first week of the trial, when soil N₂O emissions peaked. An additional finding was that FGW + N did not decrease cumulative N₂O emissions compared to the control + N, potentially due to the fact that it stimulated microbial respiration resulting in anaerobic micro sites in the soil and ultimately N₂O production via denitrification. Therefore, both materials could be used as post harvest amendments in horticulture to minimise N loss through nitrate-N leaching in the risk periods between crop rotations. The mature GWC has potential to reduce N₂O, an important greenhouse gas.     

Lethal and sublethal effects of the pyrethroid, bifenthrin, on grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) and sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus)

This study investigated the lethal and sublethal effects of the pyrethroid insecticide bifenthrin on adult and larval grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio, and adult sheepshead minnows, Cyprinodon variegatus. The effects were determined by conducting 96-h aqueous static renewal tests and 24-h static tests with sediment. Oxidative stress biomarkers, lipid peroxidation, glutathione, and catalase were also assessed. The 96-h aqueous LC50 value for adult shrimp was 0.020 microg/L (95% CI: 0.015-0.025 microg/L) and for larval shrimp was 0.013 microg/L (95% CI: 0.011-0.016 microg/L). The 96-h aqueous LC50 for adult sheepshead minnow was 19.806 microg/L (95% CI: 11.886-47.250 microg/L). The 24-h sediment LC50 for adult shrimp was 0.339 microg/L (95% CI: 0.291-0.381 microg/L) and for larval shrimp was 0.210 microg/L (95% CI: 0.096-0.393 microg/L). The oxidative stress assays showed some increasing trends toward physiological stress with increased bifenthrin concentrations but they were largely inconclusive. Given the sensitivity of grass shrimp to this compound in laboratory bioassays, additional work will be needed to determine if these exposure levels are environmentally relevant.     

Two-phase jet releases,droplet dispersion and rainout,II. Rainout experiments

This paper describes the results of the first experimental stage of Phase IV of a Joint Industry Project (JIP) on liquid jets and two-phase droplet dispersion. The objective of this stage of the JIP was to generate experimental rainout data for non-flashing water and xylene experiments. See the overview companion paper I for a wider overview of the problem, model implementation and associated model validation.A range of orifice sizes (2.5 and 5 mm) and stagnation pressures (4–16 barg) were applied. Measurements included flow rate, initial droplet size, plume concentrations/temperatures for a range of downstream locations, and distributed rainout.Instead of the Phase Doppler Anemometry method used for droplet size measurements earlier in the JIP, a photographic technique was applied in an attempt to include measurement of the larger (non-spherical) droplets. This enabled a more accurate evaluation of the initial droplet size distribution and a much clearer understanding of the droplet morphology. The results showed that the droplet behaviour in the jet is more complex than had been anticipated with the mass distribution dominated by a very small number of large non-spherical droplets. Consequently a large number of spray images were required to evaluate an accurate size distribution.Distributed rainout was measured by weighing the amount of rainout in trays positioned along the jet direction. The rainout results showed a good degree of repeatability and internal consistency. They indicated that an increasing proportion of the released material did not rainout for increasing pressure. Rainout distance also increased with increasing pressure. Evaporation of the liquid was confirmed by temperature measurements, which showed the effect of evaporative cooling.Xylene concentration measurements (up to 1%) were carried out using a direct reading photoionization detector calibrated for xylene (measuring vapour only). For a limited dataset, the accuracy of these measurements was estimated by means of comparison against an alternative more time-consuming concentration method (xylene absorption onto a charcoal filter; measuring both vapour and liquid). The concentration measurements displayed several consistent qualitative features. For example, at a given downstream distance, the peak concentration increases with increasing pressure and nozzle diameter and the vertical height at which the peak is achieved increases. The cross-stream profiles displayed a consistent tendency to increased concentration at the edge of the jet, and the reason for this has not been established.Finally recommendations are provided for potential future work.     

Water quality and health in northern Canada: stored drinking water and acute gastrointestinal illness in Labrador Inuit

One of the highest self-reported incidence rates of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) in the global peer-reviewed literature occurs in Inuit communities in the Canadian Arctic. This high incidence of illness could be due, in part, to the consumption of contaminated water, as many northern communities face challenges related to the quality of municipal drinking water. Furthermore, many Inuit store drinking water in containers in the home, which could increase the risk of contamination between source and point-of-use (i.e., water recontamination during storage). To examine this risk, this research characterized drinking water collection and storage practices, identified potential risk factors for water contamination between source and point-of-use, and examined possible associations between drinking water contamination and self-reported AGI in the Inuit community of Rigolet, Canada. The study included a cross-sectional census survey that captured data on types of drinking water used, household practices related to drinking water (e.g., how it was collected and stored), physical characteristics of water storage containers, and self-reported AGI. Additionally, water samples were collected from all identified drinking water containers in homes and analyzed for presence of Escherichia coli and total coliforms. Despite municipally treated tap water being available in all homes, 77.6% of households had alternative sources of drinking water stored in containers, and of these containers, 25.2% tested positive for total coliforms. The use of transfer devices and water dippers (i.e., smaller bowls or measuring cups) for the collection and retrieval of water from containers were both significantly associated with increased odds of total coliform presence in stored water (OR_{transfer device} = 3.4, 95% CI 1.2–11.7; OR_dipper = 13.4, 95% CI 3.8–47.1). Twenty-eight-day period prevalence of self-reported AGI during the month before the survey was 17.2% (95% CI 13.0–22.5), which yielded an annual incidence rate of 2.4 cases per person per year (95% CI 1.8–3.1); no water-related risk factors were significantly associated with AGI. Considering the high prevalence of, and risk factors associated with, indicator bacteria in drinking water stored in containers, potential exposure to waterborne pathogens may be minimized through interventions at the household level.     

Streamwater phosphorus and nitrogen across a gradient in rural–agricultural land use intensity

This paper provides an overview of the impacts of rural land use on lowland streamwater phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) concentrations and P loads and sources in lowland streams. Based on weekly water quality monitoring, the impacts of agriculture on streamwater P and N hydrochemistry were examined along a gradient of rural–agricultural land use, by monitoring three sets of ‘paired’ (near-adjacent) rural headwater streams, draining catchments which are representative of the major geology, soil types and rural/agricultural land use types of large areas of lowland Britain. The magnitude and timing of P and N inputs were assessed and the load apportionment model (LAM) was applied to quantify ‘continuous’ (point) source and ‘flow-dependent’ (diffuse) source contributions of P to these headwater streams. The results show that intensive arable farming had only a comparatively small impact on streamwater total phosphorus (TP loads), with highly consistent stream diffuse-source TP yields of ca. 0.5 kg-P ha^?1 year^?1 for the predominantly arable catchments with both clay and loam soils, compared with 0.4 kg-P ha^?1 year^?1 for low agricultural intensity grassland/woodland on similar soil types. In contrast, intensive livestock farming on heavy clay soils resulted in dramatically higher stream diffuse-source TP yields of 2 kg-P ha^?1 year^?1. The streamwater hydrochemistry of the livestock-dominated catchment was characterised by high concentrations of organic P, C and N fractions, associated with manure and slurry sources. Across the study sites, the impacts of human settlement were clearly identifiable with effluent inputs from septic tanks and sewage treatment works resulting in large-scale increases in soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) loads and concentrations. At sites heavily impacted by rural settlements, SRP concentrations under baseflow conditions reached several hundred μg-P L^?1. Load apportionment modelling demonstrated significant ‘point-source’ P inputs to the streams even where there were no sewage treatment works within the upstream catchment. This indicates that, even in sparsely populated rural headwater catchments, small settlements and even isolated groups of houses are sufficient to cause significant nutrient pollution and that septic tank systems serving these rural communities are actually operating as multiple point sources, rather than a diffuse input.     

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis of the fragile X syndrome by use of linked polymorphic markers

Fragile X syndrome is the most common cause of familial mental retardation. The most common mutation is expansion of a triplet (CGG)_n repeat in the 5′ untranslated region of the FMR1 gene on Xq27.3. The expansion is refractory to PCR due to preferential amplification of the smaller allele in heterozygous cells and the high GC content of the repeat and surrounding sequences. Direct detection of the normal parental alleles in preimplantation embryos has been used for preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) of this disorder. However, this approach is only suitable for approximately 63% of couples due to the heterozygosity of the repeat in the normal population. As an alternative we investigated the use of polymorphic markers flanking the mutation to track the normal and premutation carrying maternal chromosomes in preimplantation embryos. Using a panel of 11 polymorphisms, six (CA)_n repeats and five single nucleotide polymorphisms, diagnosis was developed for 90% of referred couples. Multiplex amplification of informative markers was tested in 300 single buccal cells from interested couples with efficiency and allele drop out (ADO) rates ranging from 69% to 96% and 6% to 18%, respectively. Use of this approach is accurate and applicable to a larger number of patients at risk of transmitting fragile X to their offspring. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ammonia emissions from swine houses in the southeastern United States

Ammonia (NH3) from confined animal feeding operations is emitted from several sources including lagoons, field applications, and houses. This paper presents studies that were conducted to evaluate NH3 emissions from swine finisher and sow animal houses in the southeastern USA. Management and climate variables including animal weight, feed consumption, housing gutter water temperature, total time fans operated per day, house air temperature, house ambient NH3 concentration, and animal numbers were measured to determine their individual and combined effect on NH3 emissions. Ammonia emissions varied on daily and seasonal bases with higher emissions during warmer periods. For finishers, the summertime housing emissions on a per-animal basis were 2.4 times higher than wintertime (7.0 vs. 3.3 g NH3 animal(-1) d(-1)) or 3.2 times higher when compared on an animal unit (AU) basis (1 AU = 500 kg) because of climate and animal size differences between measurement periods. For summertime, the emission factor for the finishing pigs was 7.8 times higher than for sows on an animal basis and 25.6 times higher on an AU basis. Simple models were developed for housing emissions based on (i) all measured factors that were independent of each other and (ii) on three commonly measured management factors. The two models explained 97 and 64%, respectively, of variations in emissions. Ammonia emissions were found to be somewhat less than other studies on the same type housing due to more representative housing concentration measurements and calibration of exhaust fans; thus, emission factors for these type houses will be less than previously thought.