Lectotypifications and neotypifications in Aster section Biotia (Asteraceae), including a complete annotated synonymy

Thirty-four lectotypes and three neotypes of names of taxa in Aster section Biotia DC. ex Torrey & Gray are designated. In addition, six lectotypes and one neotype that were selected originally in herb. are validated, i.e., published here for the first time. These typifications are presented as part of a complete annotated synonymy of the section, comprising a total of 128 entries.     

The retrieval of visuo-spatial memories by honeybees

Summary In order to explore how honeybees manage to retrieve the right landmark-memory in the right place, we trained bees along a short foraging route which consisted of two identical huts 33 m apart. Bees entered each hut to collect a drop of sucrose on the floor. The location of the drop was defined by the same arrangement of four blue and yellow cylindrical landmarks. However, in one hut the drop was between two yellow cylinders and in two other it was to the east of the blue cylinders. On tests with the sucrose missing, bees tended to search in the appropriate area in each hut (Fig. 1), thus showing that they used cues other than the sight of the local landmarks to select the appropriate memory.In a second experiment, the position of the sucrose was specified by yellow cylinders in one hut and by blue triangles in the other. When the arrays were swapped between huts, bees searched in the position specified by the array they encountered (Fig. 2). Thus, memories can be triggered by visual features of local landmarks.Bees were also trained outside to collect food from two platforms 40 m apart. The location of sucrose on one platform was defined by yellow cylinders, and on the other it was defined by blue triangles. When these arrays were exchanged between platforms, bees searched on each platform as though the landmarks had not been swapped. It seems that the more distant surroundings, which fill most of the visual field, may be more potent than the local landmarks in deciding which memory should be retrieved.It is argued that one role of distant landmarks and other contextual cues is to ensure that bees retrieve the correct memory of a constellation of local landmarks while the bees are still some distance away from their goal. Even at a short distance, a bee's current image of local landmarks may differ considerably from its stored representation of those landmarks as seen from the goal. Accurate recall of the appropriate memory will be more certain if it is primed by relatively distant landmarks which present a more constant image as a bee moves in the vicinity of its goal.