Farming system research and the quest for a sustainable agriculture

This paper brings together information from four sites in sub-Saharan Africa where FSR&D projects are located (Mali, Benin, Zambia and Tanzania), supported by the Royal Tropical Institute of The Netherlands. Common environmental constraints to agricultural productivity are analyzed, with an emphasis on aspects of soil fertility maintenance. It is shown that when plant nutrients are valued against market prices, annual crop production systems are inefficient due to considerable losses of nutrient resources (e.g., soil erosion) and economically unviable because of unfavourable input and producer price ratios. Technically solutions are available that make agriculture sustainable, but its output is likely to be reduced when accepting the need for environmental protection at various levels of integration (cropping system, field/farm, village territory, etc), since marginal land must be left under natural vegetation, and various forms of buffering elements must be installed on farms. The costs of protective measures (space, labour, energy in community organization) cannot be raised based upon local resources currently available. Making small farmer agriculture in the tropics sustainable and environmentally sound begins by improving economic conditions for farmers, raising producer income and lowering prices for inputs.     

Strategies and economics of farming systems with coffee in the Atlantic Rainforest Biome

In the Zona da Mata of Minas Gerais State, Brazil, family farmers are adjusting to agroecological principles to reconcile sustainable agriculture, livelihood improvements and biodiversity conservation. Starting in 1993, experimentation with coffee agroforestry was gradually initiated on an increasing number of farms (37 in total), resulting in the simultaneous management of sun coffee (SC) and agroforestry coffee (AF) plots. We aimed (1) to identify factors that determine the farmers’ selection of trees used in AF; (2) to describe the agroecological farms in transition; and (3) to perform an economic comparison between AF and SC. These objectives were addressed by combining data from botanical surveys in 1993/1994 and 2007, by interviews with farmers and by detailed data on the production value and costs of labour and material inputs. The results showed considerable diversity in farming strategies and management among the farmers. Early adopters of AF had diversified towards production of different marketable products. The use of native trees in AF for this purpose, and for restoration of soil fertility (e.g., leguminous trees), had increased since the start of the experiments, while exotic tree species were eliminated. Over a period of 12 years AF was more profitable than SC due to the production of a diversity of agricultural goods, despite somewhat higher establishment costs. Other ecosystem services delivered by AF, such as biodiversity and cultural services are currently not valorized. Payment schemes for environmental services could further improve the economic benefits of AF for family farmers and alleviate establishment and learning costs.     

The effects of management and plant diversity on carbon storage in coffee agroforestry systems in Costa Rica

Agroforestry systems can mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, conserve biodiversity and generate income. Whereas the provision of ecosystem services by agroforestry is well documented, the functional relationships between species composition, diversity and carbon (C)-storage remain uncertain. This study aimed to analyze the effects of management (conventional vs. organic), woody plant diversity and plant composition on aboveground and belowground C-storage in coffee agroforestry systems. It was expected that organic farms would store more C, and that an increase in plant diversity would enhance C-storage due to complementarity effects. Additionally, it was expected that steep slopes decrease C-storage as a result of topsoil erosion. Woody plants were identified on 1?ha plots within 14 coffee farms (7 conventional and 7 organic). C-stocks in trees, coffee plants and roots were estimated from allometric equations. C-stocks in litter and topsoil (0?C25?cm) were estimated by sampling. On average, farms stored 93?±?29?Mg?C?ha^?1. Soil organic carbon accounted for 69?% of total C. Total C-stocks were 43?% higher on organic farms than on conventional farms (P?<?0.05). Conventional and organic farms differed in vegetation structure, but not in species diversity. It was found that the combined effect of farm type, species richness, species composition and slope explained 83?% of the variation in total C-storage across all farms (P?<?0.001). Coffee agroforestry in general and organic farms in particular may contribute to GHG mitigation and biodiversity conservation in a synergistic manner which has implications for the effective allocation of resources for conservation and climate change mitigation strategies in the agricultural sector.     

Soil characteristics below <Emphasis Type="Italic">Erythrina poeppigiana</Emphasis> in organic and conventional Costa Rican coffee plantations

The impact of Erythrina poeppigiana on soil characteristics, at three different positions relative to the shade tree and from three different soil depths, was evaluated in pairs of comparable Costa Rican coffee farms (organic and conventional) in 2000 and 2004. In the conventional system at 0–5 cm, higher C and N concentrations were found close to the shade tree versus the positions 2 m from the trunk (5.04 vs. 4.18%). This positive effect could influence only 20% of the farm area when high population of E. poeppigiana were used. This finding highlighted the importance of E. poeppigiana in maintaining SOM levels. In contrast, the organic system showed similar C and N concentrations for all positions probably due to an even distribution of pruning residues and to the use of organic amendments. A trend to higher total C and N concentrations for organic farms in comparison to conventional farms was found. No significant temporal changes in soil C or N concentrations were found between 2000 and 2004.     

Technical efficiency in the spice based agroforestry sector in Matale district, Sri Lanka

Spices constitute an important sub-sector of the economy of Sri Lanka. Most perennial spices are cultivated in agroforestry types of farming systems. A field survey was conducted covering 127 agroforestry farmers in six divisional secretariats in Matale district during the period of October to December 2002. Technical efficiency of spice based agroforestry systems was estimated in order to identify the potential increase in production without incurring additional costs for farm inputs. The factors affecting technical efficiency and constraints and potential of the agroforestry system were also investigated. According to a stochastic frontier production function using a Cobb–Douglas model, hired labour, organic fertilizer, inorganic fertilizer, land size, and soil conservation measures showed significant positive effects on the agroforestry production. The mean technical efficiency of the spice based agroforestry systems was 84.32%. According to the inefficiency model the efficiency increased significantly as a result of farm visits by extension officers, participation in farmer training, less sloping lands, more experience, and higher diversity of the agroforestry system. Technical efficiency decreased, however, with higher education level of the farmer and with higher off-farm income. Unsustainability of the agroforestry system is seen as a result of a␣range of constraints related to productivity, market, technology and institutions.     

Improving adoptability of farm forestry in the Philippine uplands: a linear programming model

In the Philippines, smallholder farmers have become major timber producers. But the systems of timber production practiced have several limitations. In intercropping systems, the practice of severe branch and/or root pruning reduces tree-crop competition and increases annual crop yields, but is detrimental to tree growth and incompatible with commercial timber production. In even-aged woodlots, lack of regular income and poor tree growth, resulting from farmers’ reluctance to thin their plantations, are major constraints to adoption and profitable tree farming. In the municipality of Claveria, Misamis Oriental, the recent practice of planting trees on widely spaced (6–8 m) contour grass strips established for soil conservation suggests ways to improve the adoptability (i.e., profitability, feasibility and acceptability) of timber-based agroforestry systems. Assuming that financial benefits are the main objective of timber tree farmers, we develop a simple linear programming (LP) model for the optimal allocation of land to monocropping and tree intercropping that maximizes the net present value of an infinite number of rotations and satisfies farmers’ resource constraints and regular income requirements. The application of the LP model to an average farmer in Claveria showed that cumulative additions of widely spaced tree hedgerows provides higher returns to land, and reduce the risk of agroforestry adoption by spreading over the years labour and capital investment costs and the economic benefits accruing to farmers from trees. Therefore, incremental planting of widely spaced tree hedgerows can make farm forestry more adoptable and thus benefit a larger number of resource-constrained farmers in their evolution towards more diverse and productive agroforestry systems.     

Psychological Factors Influencing Farmers’ Intention to Adopt Agroforestry: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

ABSTRACT

The biophysical characteristics of the farm and farmers’ socioeconomic factors have been used to explain adoption of technologies in Africa. However, agricultural technology adoption requires that we also understand the psychological factors that can encourage or discourage farmer adoption of technologies. The aim of this article is to assess the psychological drivers of farmers’ intentions to adopt agroforestry technologies on their farms. We obtained data from 400 smallholder farmers in the Mt. Elgon region of Uganda. The Theory of Planned Behavior was used as the main framework. Quantitative data were analyzed using structural equation modeling to assess the impact of a set of psychological factors on farmers’ intention to integrate trees in coffee. The intention of farmers to integrate trees in coffee plantations was mainly driven by their evaluation of the benefits of shaded coffee (attitude) followed by beliefs about their own capability (perceived behavioral control). However, social pressure (subjective norm) was insignificant, implying that smallholder farmers tend to deny the influence of other people’s behavior on their actions. Therefore, farmers’ positive evaluation of shading coffee and the perceived capability to overcome tree planting barriers reinforced their intention to integrate trees in coffee. This renders attitude and perceived behavioral control as reliable predictors of farmer tree planting behavior, especially in the context of developing countries.     

Consumer willingness to pay price premiums for environmentally certified wood products in the U.S.

Since its inception nearly 15 years ago, environmental certification has become an important issue in the wood products industry. One research question that has been examined is the potential willingness for supply chain participants to pay a premium for certified products or raw materials to offset certification costs. This study examines stated willingness to pay for four wood products from the perspective of U.S. consumers. Data was collected in 1995 and 2005 from the population of U.S. residential consumers to detect changes in willingness to pay for certified wood products along time and increase the statistical strength of the model. Results of an ordered probit model suggest that higher probabilities of paying a premium are associated to consumers who seek out certified products and who believe certification can lessen environmental impacts such as tropical deforestation. There is also a strong relationship between respondent income and willingness-to-pay. Despite the current industry structure in the U.S. that has adopted a mass-certification strategy that does not place price premiums on certified products, results suggest that such premiums may exist for imported certified tropical wood products. Analysis of marginal effects suggests consumers' willingness to pay a 10% premium for three of the four certified items studied. Niche markets may potentially be exploited in the U.S. and price premiums captured by wood products manufacturers in tropical regions and/or American importers.     

Changing livelihoods on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro,Tanzania: Challenges and opportunities in the Chagga homegarden system

Mt. Kilimanjaro area with the old Chagga agroforestry system has been one of the most productive agricultural areas is Tanzania. Today the area is facing several challenges that affect people’s livelihoods. To study implications of low coffee price, population pressure and ensuing land use change on the farming systems and livelihoods of the people of the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, an interview survey was conducted. A multivariate regression analysis was used in studying and testing the interrelationships between farm production and some socio-economic variables (assets). From nine different independent variables only land size and farmers age had statistically significant influence on revenue from the main crops grown. This suggests that families have so many different combinations of assets and farm-specific temporally varying strategies and objectives that it is not possible to find clear patterns of assets and strategies that would lead to successful livelihood outcomes. Due to sinking coffee prices in the world market, farmers have been looking for alternatives to earn cash. As land scarcity hinders both expansion of cultivation and expansion of animal keeping, more intensified and diversified production and off-farm activities have become crucial. There is an urgent need for technical research and experimentation on new agricultural options for the area and a need of understanding and creation of marketing channels.     

Household and farm attributes affecting adoption of smallholder timber management practices by tree growers in Gunungkidul region,Indonesia

Farm household characteristics determine the success of programs promoting agroforestry systems and practices. This paper reports household and farm factors affecting the adoption of timber management practices by smallholders in the Gunungkidul region, Central Java, Indonesia. The research used three logistic regression analysis models—based on each household and farm characteristic, and a composite of both together—to identify the key factors influencing farmers’ adoption and management decisions, and their relative importance. A sample of 152 farmers who managed their trees primarily for timber production was compared to a sample of 115 farmers with similar socio-economic characteristics who did not. The household condition and composite models identified both on-farm and off-farm gross incomes as significant factors affecting farmers’ decisions to manage timber trees. The models confirmed that farmers with larger farms, and with higher on- and off-farm incomes, were more likely to manage their trees for timber production. These results have implications for extension programs that promote adoption of commercial timber management by smallholders in the case study and similar regions.     

Adoption potential of selected organic resources for improving soil fertility in the central highlands of Kenya

Soil fertility decline is the major cause of declining crop yields in the central highlands of Kenya and elsewhere within the African continent. This paper reports a study conducted to assess adoption potential of two leguminous trees, two herbaceous legumes, cattle manure, and Tithonia diversifolia either solely applied or combined with inorganic fertilizer, for replenishing soil fertility in the central highlands of Kenya. The study examined biophysical performance, profitability, feasibility and acceptability, and farmers experiences in managing and testing the inputs. The study was based on a series of studies incorporating both sociological and experimental approaches for two and a half years. Results of on farm trials showed that manure + fertilizer and tithonia + fertilizer treatments increased yields by more than 100% above the control. These treatments were the most profitable having highest net benefits and benefit cost ratios. They were also the most commonly preferred by farmers who used them on larger plots compared to the other inputs. In conclusion, cattle manure and tithonia were found to be the organic materials with the highest adoption potential for soil fertility improvement in this area. Calliandra calothyrsus and Leucaena trichandra, on the other hand, have potential for use as animal fodder. The herbaceous legumes had the least adoption potential due to poor performance recorded on the farms that possibly led to low preference by the farmers. However, issues of sustainable seed production could have played a role. This study recommends some policy issues for enhancing adoption and research issues focusing on exploring strategies for increasing biomass production and use efficiency on farms. Andre Bationo was formerly working for Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute of CIAT (TSBF-CIAT) as the African network Coordinator.     

The contribution of non-managed social bees to coffee production: new economic insights based on farm-scale yield data

Fruit set and quality of highland coffee (Coffea arabica) have been experimentally shown to be higher with bee-mediated or manual pollen supplementation than with autonomous self-pollination. Based on extrapolation from these small-scale experiments, very substantial monetary values for the pollination service have recently been suggested. However, previous research has not included direct measurement of coffee yield at a farm level in relation to pollinator activity, testing if pollinators are not only limiting fruit set and quality, but also coffee yield and farm profit. The extrapolations from small-scale experiments may be subject to error, because resource reallocation during fruit development, associated with enhanced pollination, was neglected, and many studies were restricted to a single coffee farm, limiting the validity of extrapolation. Here, we investigate the relationship between coffee yield and the community of coffee flower-visiting bees on 21 farms in Ecuador, where coffee is grown under tree shade. Our data show, for the first time on a farm-scale, that coffee yield was positively related to the density of non-managed, social flower-visiting bees per coffee shrub, but not to the number of inflorescences per shrub. Our data revealed that a fourfold increase in bee density was associated with an 80% increase in yield and an 800% increase in net revenues. Consequently, in our study higher yield associated with increased pollination generated higher revenues per hectare, so that farm profit was higher when bees were abundant.     

Why Certify? Motivations,Outcomes and the Importance of Facilitating Organizations in Certification of Community-Based Forestry Initiatives

Despite documented challenges, many community-based forestry (CBF) initiatives pursue forest certification. This study asked community-based forestry practitioners in Vermont what influenced their decisions to seek or not seek certification and what outcomes were realized from certification. Relationships, public image, value alignment and feedback on management practices were most commonly cited as both motivations for and results of certification. Expectations for economic benefits were low and price premiums for products were only occasionally realized. Informants complained of the increasing cost, complexity and time commitment required of certification. Overall, however, certified CBF informants felt certification was worth the expense. Group certificates and external funding significantly reduced certification costs to grassroots CBF initiatives. This study highlights the importance of facilitating organizations that can provide outreach, secure funding, understand the rules, handle documentation and develop markets for certified products.     

Acacia nilotica trees in rice fields: A traditional agroforestry system in central India

Time-tested, indigenous land-use systems can provide valuable information for the design of ecologically sustainable and socially acceptable agroforestry systems. One such traditional system is the growing of Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex Delile trees, locally known as babul, in rice fields of smallholder farmers in Madhya Pradesh State of Central India, an area with subhumid monsoon climate and hot summer. The functional characteristics of the system were collected through participatory rural appraisal involving intensive interactions with farmers in the region during six years, and through a structured-questionnaire survey in 25 villages, involving a total of 200 farm families. The farms had an average of 20 babul trees, ranging in age from <1 to 12 years, per hectare in upland rice fields, the tree-stand density being greater on smaller than on larger farms (>8 ha). Over a ten year rotation period, the trees provide a variety of products such as fuelwood (30 kg/tree), brushwood for fencing (4 kg/tree), small timber for farm implements and furniture (0.2 cu.m), and non-timber products such as gum and seeds. The babul + rice system was estimated to have a benefit/cost (B/C) ratio of 1.47 and an internal rate of return (IRR) of 33% at 12% annual discount rate during a ten-year period, though at a low level of income. Babul trees account for nearly 10% of the annual farm income of smallholder farmers (<2 ha). By practising the agroforestry (rice + babul) system, farmers get higher cash returns on a short-term (10-year) harvest cycle of trees, and the labour input (both family- and hired) on farms was distributed more uniformly throughout the year than in rice monoculture. Purchased inputs are seldom used in the system. The ease of management of the system, the self-generating and robust nature of the tree and the multiple products and services it provides, and easy marketability of the products are the major factors that encourage farmers to adopt the system. Furthermore, the farmers have secure ownership rights to their land, so that they are interested in long-term measures such as tree plantings on their farms. In spite of its long history and tradition as a sustainable approach to land use, the system has not attracted the attention of development agencies. More detailed investigations on its social, economic, and cultural attributes are warranted to not only improve this system, but provide insights into farmer adoption of agroforestry innovations.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Shade trees: a determinant to the relative success of organic versus conventional coffee production

Greater understanding of the influences on long-term coffee productivity are needed to develop systems that are profitable, while maximizing ecosystem services and lowering negative environmental impacts. We examine a long-term experiment (15 years) established in Costa Rica in 2000 and compare intensive conventional (IC) coffee production under full sun with 19 agroforestry systems combining timber and service tree species with contrasting characteristics, with conventional and organic managements of different intensities. We assessed productivity through coffee yield and coffee morphological characteristics. IC had the highest productivity but had the highest yield bienniality; in the agroforestry systems productivity was similar for moderate conventional (MC) and intensive organic (IO) treatments (yield 5.3 vs. 5.0 t ha^?1 year^?1). Significantly lower yields were observed under shade than full sun, but coffee morphology was similar. Low input organic production (LO) declined to zero under the shade of the non-legume timber tree Terminalia amazonia but when legume tree species were chosen (Erythrina poepiggiana, Chloroleucon eurycyclum) LO coffee yield was not significantly different than for IO. For the first 6 years, coffee yield was higher under the shade of timber trees (Chloroleucon and Terminalia), while in the subsequent 7 years, Erythrina systems were more productive; presumably this is due to lower shade covers. If IC full sun plantations are not affordable or desired in the future, organic production is an interesting alternative with similar productivity to MC management and in LO systems incorporation of legume tree species is shown to be essential.     

Farmers’ perceptions about exotic multipurpose fodder trees and constraints to their adoption

Many organizations in Ethiopia have for many years promoted exotic multipurpose fodder trees (EMPFT) for livestock feed and soil improvement. Despite the apparent benefits, the number of farmers planting these trees was low. The objectives were to elucidate farmers’ perceptions about their use value, management practices and constraints to adoption in three districts representing annual (one wheat-based and one teff-based) and perennial (coffee-based) crop-livestock systems in the Ethiopian highlands. Data were collected from 235 farm households. Most farmers (95.3%) had awareness of EMPFTs and the principal information sources were development agents (75.3%). Over half of the farmers were motivated to plant EMPFTs for feed value. Motivation for other purposes depended on cropping system, vegetation cover and availability of alternative local fodder trees in the area. Farmers had positive perceptions about EMPFTs for their feed value and contribution to soil conservation. Current adopters had a mean number of 587 (SE ± 84) EMPFTs per farm. Major constraints to adoption of EMPFTs were agronomic problems, low multipurpose value, and land shortage. Majority of farmers (89.8%) were interested to either continue or begin fodder tree development. Of the interested respondents, 44.5% preferred local fodder trees whereas 55.5% preferred EMPFTs. We conclude that farmers are aware of use values of EMPFTs while perceived constraints suggest that introduction of EMPFTs need consideration of farmers multiple criteria, but also awareness of feeding fodder trees and resource availability. Moreover, current development approaches have to recognize the importance of involving the end-users at all stages through participatory approaches to enhance adoption.     

Agroforestry,attitude towards risk and nutrient availability: a case study of south Indian farming systems

Introduction of two systems of agroforestry to the farmers portfolio is evaluated for their changes in cropping pattern, input use, income generation, farmers attitude towards risk and nutrient availability. Two different types of farmers are studied under both irrigated and dryland farming systems. Farm survey data collected from south Indian villages have been used with a mean-variance framework to identify the risk aversion levels of farmers. The results indicate that the risk-taking preferences of farmers should be given consideration in evaluating the impact of agroforestry systems. Among the two agroforestry systems analyzed, the one with drumstick is shown to increase the risk of crop production while the one with leucaena reduces the risk and enables farmers to invest in more risky cash crops. The impact of agroforestry on crop allocation, input use and income differs due to the differences in resource availability of farmers. The influence of agroforestry on nutrient availability of the farm households also differs based on the components of agroforestry, orientation of farming and the nature of farming systems. It is argued that design of agroforestry systems should consider differences in resource constraints in farming systems and risk attitudes of farmers towards their allocation decisions and that such considerations would largely enhance the successful adoption of agroforestry in developing countries.     

Abandonement of coffee agroforests increases insect abundance and diversity

Shade coffee including many tree species is known to support generally high biodiversity. Due to low coffee prices on the world market, many farmers have abandoned their farms, thereby creating a new ecosystem type, which has attracted increasing interest for biodiversity conservation. Here we used pyrethrum knockdown samples to compare the arthropod community on coffee plants of six traditionally managed coffee agroforests with those of six abandoned coffee agroforests in coastal Ecuador. We investigated eight randomly selected coffee shrubs per site, six of them inside and two at the edge. All arthropods were identified to orders and beetles to morphospecies. We additionally sampled the vegetation to test for vegetation-mediated effects on the arthropod community. The number of arthropod individuals was higher in abandoned than managed coffee, driven by the abundance of Arachnida, Blattaria, and Heteroptera, and higher in the edge than in the centre of the abandoned agroforests. Higher arthropod abundance appeared to be closely related to arthropod diversity, as shown for beetles (r = 0.79, n = 96). Contrary to expectations, predator-prey ratios in managed agroforests was as high as in the abandoned ones. In conclusion, abandonment of coffee agroforests greatly encourages arthropod communities, in particular in the habitat edges, and therefore, should be considered in landscape management for conservation.     

Assessment of small mammal diversity in coffee agroforestry in the Western Ghats,India

Coffee agroforestry is a conservation strategy that has shown promise to support the diversity of bird, bat, and insect communities, but few studies have focused on non-volant mammals in coffee farms. We assessed mammal diversity within coffee agroforestry systems in Kodagu, India and investigated the impacts of the non-native shade tree species, Grevillea robusta, on mammal diversity. Twenty farms, with varying amounts of G. robusta planted within the coffee farm, were sampled throughout three rainfall zones during the 4-month study period. We captured six species of small mammals, with indirect methods yielding an additional five species, totaling 11 mammal species. Contrary to current ecological thought, we found that increased amounts of G. robusta did not have a negative impact on either abundance or richness of mammals. Small mammal abundances were higher at farms with greater amounts of herbaceous ground cover and larger, mature shade trees, while small mammal species richness was found to increase with an increase in tree species richness as well as greater amounts of herbaceous ground cover. Additionally, small mammal abundance was higher at coffee farms closer to forested areas. Based on these findings, we suggest the maintenance or cultivation of shade tree richness, mature shade trees, and herbaceous ground cover within coffee farms and preservation of forested areas within the landscape to enhance coffee agroforestry habitat for non-volant mammals. We hope that these habitat requirements will be incorporated into conservation strategies for the promotion of biodiversity within coffee agroforestry systems.     

Farmers’ Fruit Tree-growing Strategies in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon and Nigeria

Many studies have stressed the importance of trees to rural households. Few, however, have focused on actual numbers and densities of trees in different land-use systems. Based on community-level participatory research in six communities, semi-structured household interviews and full-farm fruit tree inventories, this study aims to understand farmers’ tree-planting strategies. Relationships between the diversity, number and density of fruit trees and farm size, land-use system, land tenure, distance from the homestead, proximity to the forest, market access and household characteristics are investigated. The key factors determining the differences in tree-growing strategies between communities appear to be market access, land use and access to forest resources. Within communities, differences between individual households were less easy to explain but tenure was important as was farm size. Smaller farms had higher fruit tree densities, a relationship that was particularly strong in communities with good market access. Overall there was a great deal of variability both within and between communities and many of the factors affecting tree-planting decisions were found to be highly inter-related. Despite this complexity, trees on farm play an important role in rural household's livelihoods. Therefore, expansion of tree cultivation should be recognized as a promising pathway to achieve increased income and food production by policy makers and extensionists alike. In addition to improved tree propagation and management techniques, farmers should be strengthened in the processing and marketing of agroforestry tree products and more emphasis should be placed on the development of tree enterprises. By doing so, farmers will be able to earn a more important and consistent income from fruit trees, contributing to the Millennium Development Goals.