图文信息对消费者互动行为及品牌关系的影响

 随着社会化媒体的快速兴起和普及,企业逐渐将其作为与消费者互动和增强消费者-品牌关系的首要渠道。然而,学术界和企业界对于企业在社会化媒体上发布的内容如何影响消费者互动行为以及消费者-品牌关系缺乏足够的了解。        图文信息作为企业使用最多、最为便捷高效的内容形式,其组合形式和有效性并未得到检验。基于已有企业与消费者之间互动内容的研究成果,图片和文本信息均分为功能型和社会型。 根据图文一致性理论、消费者互动理论和消费者-品牌关系理论,对图文信息组合形式对消费者互动行为和消费者-品牌关系的影响提出假设。采用组间实验设计,通过发布二维码招募真实的消费者在自己的手机上参与实验,采用ANOVA分析进行假设验证。        研究结果表明,当文本类型为功能型时,与配以社会型图片或不配图片相比,配以与之一致的功能型图片最能激发消费者互动行为;但功能型文本配以与之一致或不一致的功能型图片两者之间差异并不显著。当文本类型为社会型时,配以功能型图片则能够产生更多的消费者互动行为。对于消费者-品牌关系的影响略有不同,当文本类型为功能型时,配以与之一致的功能型图片对消费者-品牌关系的提升作用最强,但与配以社会型图片相比没有显著差异;当文本类型为社会型时,配以功能型图片与配以一致或不一致的社会型图片对消费者-品牌关系的影响没有显著差异。该研究结果说明消费者在社会化媒体情景下对信息的处理策略和态度与在印刷媒体情景下有很大的差异性。        探讨图文信息对消费者互动行为的影响,研究结果有助于增进人们对于社会化媒体情景下广告内容对消费者互动行为影响的理解。同时,它对企业如何开展社会化媒体营销沟通具有指导意义。     

电子口碑发布平台差异对消费者感知有用性的影响

  随着互联网的不断发展和普及,网购成为一种常态化的购物方式,电子口碑已经成为现代消费者做出购买决策前的重要参考内容。但大多数关于电子口碑的研究集中在电子商务平台,很少关注到社交媒体平台上的电子口碑。微商的崛起促进了社交媒体中网络购物的发展,社交媒体中的口碑信息也越来越成为消费者做出购买决策时的重要参考,但很少有研究探讨来自不同平台的电子口碑对消费者感知影响的差异。因此,电子商务平台和社交媒体平台的电子口碑对比研究就显得很有必要。         在精细加工可能性模型的基础上,结合有用性理论,从边缘路径和中心路径两个方向入手,采用案例研究方法,对28名受访者进行半结构化的深度访谈,通过开放性编码、主轴编码、选择性编码对访谈资料进行分析提取和凝炼,对电子商务平台与社交媒体平台的差异及其是否对消费者对于电子口碑的感知有用性产生影响进行探索性研究。         研究结果表明,电子商务平台与社交媒体平台在评论数量、评论来源可信度、平台功能、评论质量、平台评论公开性等10个方面存在差异,电子商务平台的评论数量、评论质量、评论公开性等方面均强于社交媒体平台,而社交媒体平台评论来源可信度高于电子商务平台,且评论语言风格更加优美、细致。评论类型不影响消费者对电子口碑的感知有用性;评论数量、评论来源可信度、平台功能3个差异从边缘路径方向影响消费者对电子口碑的感知有用性;评论风格、评论质量、信息效价完整性、评论发布动机归因4个差异从中心路径方向对消费者对于电子口碑的感知有用性产生影响。         研究结果丰富了电子商务平台和社交媒体平台电子口碑和感知有用性领域的研究,也为电子商务平台与社交媒体平台电子口碑的比较研究提供了新的论证依据。此外,还为社会化电子商务实践者提供一定的参考意见,对实践和理论都有指导意义。     

基于透镜模型的在线口碑传播的有效性研究

  当前国内外研究多数探讨在线口碑传播的动机、效果和影响因素等，而这些探讨是基于在线口碑传播接收者可以有效接收口碑发送者信息假设基础上的，如果假设不成立，那么针对接收者的研究也就难以成立，因此研究在线口碑传播的有效性这一问题十分有必要。         无论从口碑发送者的传播目的，还是从口碑接收者的感知能力的角度看，在线口碑传播的有效性取决于诸多不确定因素。基于BRUNSWIK透镜模型理论，建立在线口碑传播模型，探讨在模型的编码、传播、解码过程中，在线口碑接收者能否有效感知到发送者想要传播的态度和情绪。同时，提出自动文本分析方法产生的语言指标简化近端线索和远端线索的识别。基于在线口碑传播模型及其简化模型提出相关假设，通过问卷调查获得口碑发送者和接收者的实验数据，并运用自动文本分析方法将口碑发送者的评论生成语言指标，利用Spss和Lisrel进行统计分析和模型修正。         研究结果表明，在线口碑发送者的传播目的可以有效地被接收者感知，且显著影响接收者的态度、情绪和购买意愿，但口碑接收者对感知积极情绪持谨慎态度；确定了在有效在线口碑传播过程中发送者的远端线索和接收者的近端线索，得出9个可靠的传播线索；语言指标比星级评价能更好地解释在线口碑参与者的态度和情绪；初步证明语言指标可以代替远端线索和近端线索，利用自动文本分析方法可以简化对在线口碑参与者的态度和情绪的预测。         传播线索可以提高产品或服务质量，与星级评价相比，更要注意文本评论的重要影响，可利用文本分析方法监测在线口碑状态，以了解产品或服务的质量水平，研究结果对企业实践具有一定的指导意义。     

矛盾性追加评论对感知有用性的影响效应研究

 随着在线评论机制的完善,各大网络购物平台设置了追加评论的功能,消费者可在初次评论后一定时间段内针对同一产品再次评论。目前追加评论逐渐引起学者们的广泛关注,已有关于含追加的在线评论研究中,大多是针对含追加评论与未追加评论之间、含追加评论中一致性追加评论与矛盾性追加评论之间的感知有用性差异进行比较研究,较少研究分析矛盾性追加评论之间,即初次评论与追加评论情感方向不一致的情况下含追加评论的感知有用性差异。        将矛盾性追加评论分为初次评论为正、追加评论为负和初次评论为负、追加评论为正两种情况,基于归因理论和精细加工可能性模型的视角,探讨矛盾性追加评论对感知有用性差异的影响效应以及不同产品卷入度对矛盾性追加评论感知有用性差异的调节作用。实验均以大学生为样本,从天猫商城真实的评论环境中获取的在线追加评论作为实验数据,采用曼-惠特尼秩和检验和Wilcoxon符号秩检验两种非参数检验方法进行数据分析。        研究结果表明,①在矛盾性追加评论中,初次评论为正、追加评论为负的含追加评论感知有用性显著高于初次评论为负、追加评论为正的在线评论;②产品卷入度对矛盾性追加评论感知有用性差异具有调节作用,对于高卷入度产品而言,正-负追加组和负-正追加组感知有用性差异显著;对于低卷入度产品而言,这种差异不显著。        从理论上讲,研究结论进一步完善了含追加在线评论的研究框架,并引入了产品卷入度这一调节变量,解释了人们对矛盾性信息感知的差异。研究结论还具有一定的实践指导意义,由于消费者更加关注正-负追加组的在线评论,企业应采取措施降低负面追加评论对产品的影响。     

基于主观逻辑方法的消费者多源信任融合模型

 社会化商务中,消费者依赖在线口口相传建立感知信任,其本质是复杂网络上的多源信任融合问题。国内外学者对多源信任融合问题进行了大量研究,并以主观逻辑方法为代表形成了信任融合方法的研究体系。然而,由于社交网络中消费者感知信任的多源性和高度主观性以及用户生成内容的海量化,给多源信任融合模型带来量化难、实时处理难和融合难等问题。        针对上述难题,提出“先聚类、后融合”的研究思路,先对海量推荐信息进行聚类,再融入感知信任的主观因素构建多源信任融合模型。首先,将推荐信息间的相似性作为节点关系,从社交网络中抽取出推荐信息相似性网络,用谱平分方法对聚簇进行划分,实现对推荐信息的聚类;其次,用网络属性度量感知信任的影响因素,从复杂网络视角出发,提出消费者感知信任定性因素的量化方法;再次,以多属性决策方法为基础,改进主观逻辑方法构建多源信任融合模型,从而将感知信任的影响因素融入主观逻辑方法,突破主观逻辑方法只考虑推荐信息和网络路径的局限性;最后,通过仿真实验对推荐信息实验数据进行聚类,并分析主观因素对感知信任意见空间的调节作用,验证模型的可行性。        研究结果表明,研究模型能够快速划分推荐信息相似性网络,客观地量化感知信任的影响因素,使其融入信任度计算之中,且能够体现消费者感知信任的主观性和异质性。从仿真实验结果看,该模型能够有效解决大规模社会网络中推荐信息海量化问题,权威程度、从众行为和主体间亲密度等影响因素对信任度计算结果起调节作用。该模型将信任融合模型扩展到社会化商务领域,可以帮助商家评价已有消费群体对新消费者感知信任的影响力,为大规模网络中消费者感知信任的度量和预测提供新视角,为商家实时分析消费者感知信任意向和制定营销策略提供方法支持。对于难以建立新消费者信任的商家,可以通过制定激励机制来提高用户生成内容量,培养或引入权威人士作为明星节点,建立有主题的小社区等形式来促进主体间交流,增强消费者之间的亲密度,从而提高消费者感知信任。     

自我建构对消费者促销方式偏好的影响

  形式多样的促销手段成为企业在激烈市场竞争中赢得胜利的重要方式。已有研究涉及的促销方式直接受益实体都是消费者自身,随着消费者社会责任意识的提高,直接受益实体为慈善机构的捐赠促销活动不断出现,然而很少有学者对不同受益实体的促销方式的效果进行比较。         基于信息框架理论和调节定向理论,以打折促销和捐赠促销为研究对象,运用分类变量中介检验和3阶交互效应方法,通过Spss软件中的Process插件进行Bootstrap中介效应分析,解释调节定向在不同自我建构消费者对两种促销方式偏好关系中的中介作用机制,并引入感知风险和感知稀缺两个变量,探究其在自我建构对消费者促销方式偏好影响中的调节作用。         研究结果表明,调节定向在自我建构与促销方式选择的关系中起中介作用,即拥有独立自我建构的消费者认为促进定向信息说服力更强,从而偏好打折促销方式;拥有依存自我建构的消费者认为防御定向信息说服力更强,从而偏好捐赠促销方式。当感知风险较高时,防御定向信息强化依存自我建构的消费者对捐赠促销方式的偏好;当感知风险较低时,促进定向信息强化独立自我建构的消费者对打折促销方式的偏好。当感知稀缺较高时,防御定向信息强化独立自我建构的消费者对打折促销方式的偏好;当感知稀缺较低时,促进定向信息强化依存自我建构的消费者对捐赠促销方式的偏好。         在理论上拓展了信息框架效应的相关研究,揭示了自我建构与调节定向作用关系的适用边界。通过检验不同自我建构消费者对调节定向相匹配的促销信息评价机制,证明促销活动中的匹配机制可使促销效果更佳。在实践上,为企业在不同消费情景下面对不同特点消费者制定相应的促销活动提供了策略指导,从而提升企业的销售利润。     

量化自我的效应及其对消费者参与行为的影响机制

 对亚健康等社会问题的担忧以及商业性智能应用和可穿戴量化设备的出现和推广，使越来越多的消费者参与量化自我，追踪测量自我活动水平和健康状况等。学界和业界对消费者的量化自我关注趋增，已有研究明确了量化自我概念内涵和类型，强调量化自我对优化和管控消费者行为具有积极效用。但已有研究并未探明量化自我对消费者活动参与行为的影响及其内在机制，且尚未形成整合的消费者量化自我分析框架。        构建整合的理论框架，以探明量化自我效应及其影响消费者活动参与行为的心理机制，对量化自我过程中消费者的行为反应作出合理解释，从个体认知差异视角出发，基于认知失调理论，结合消费者的自尊水平与测量反馈感知不一致，对量化自我影响消费者活动参与行为的心理机制进行分析，探讨量化对消费者活动参与绩效的影响、感知不一致和自尊水平对消费者提升量化活动参与绩效意愿的影响，以及消费者自我概念清晰性对该影响的中介效应。运用实验研究方法，采用测量阅读页数的实验研究设计，借助方差分析和Bootstrap方法检验量化自我效应及其影响消费者活动参与行为的内在机制，明确消费者自尊水平与感知不一致的交互作用以及自我概念清晰性的中介机制。        研究结果表明，与非量化情景相比，量化自我将增进消费者活动参与绩效，量化将使消费者更易感知到先前未觉的目标预期与实际行为的不一致。当存在量化条件时，消费者往往会主动选择参与量化自我。量化自我过程中，消费者的自尊水平与测量反馈感知不一致同时影响其提升量化活动参与绩效的意愿，且自我概念清晰性在这一过程中起中介作用。当感知到积极不一致时，低自尊消费者较高自尊消费者的自我概念清晰性更低，且低自尊消费者对积极感知不一致反应越强烈，其自我概念清晰性越低，继而提升量化活动参与绩效的意愿越强；当感知到消极不一致时，高自尊消费者比低自尊消费者的自我概念清晰性更低，且高自尊消费者对消极感知不一致反应越强烈，其自我概念清晰性越低，继而提升量化活动参与绩效的意愿越强。        研究结果在丰富相关理论、深入理解量化自我内在机制的同时，对企业驱动消费者参与量化活动、科学设计和开发产品、呈现和传递信息等具有重要实践意义。     

表情符号多余吗?——表情符号对在线产品评论感知有用性的影响研究

本文探索了积极表情符号对在线产品评论感知有用性的影响。研究发现：(1)积极表情符号会提高评论的感知有用性;(2)感知温暖中介了积极表情符号对评论感知有用性的影响;(3)消费者的认知风格、产品类型与评论信息类型均调节了中介路径“表情符号→感知温暖→感知有用性”。在第三点中,研究发现对于视觉型认知风格的消费者中介路径显著,但对于言语型认知风格的消费者不显著;对于实用型产品中介路径显著,但对于享乐型产品不显著;对于客观事实型评论,中介路径在实用型产品的情境中显著,却在享乐型产品的情境中不显著,但对于主观评价型评论中介路径均不显著。这些研究结论对进一步厘清以往表情符号对消费者影响的矛盾结论,丰富表情符号营销、口碑等领域的研究,完善刻板印象内容模型与信息源可信度理论等具有重要的理论意义,而且对于企业与网络平台正确设计与引导消费者在口碑信息中使用表情符号以及企业从口碑信息中获取消费者对产品态度的准确信息具有重要的实践意义。     

环境气味对消费者产品评价和购买意向的影响研究

 在营销领域中，关于环境气味的研究大多都集中在气味的怡人属性对消费者的影响，而关于气味的性别属性的研究却较少涉及。        基于感官营销的视角，采用环境心理学理论，运用实验研究方法，借助SPSS软件对实验数据进行分析，探讨消费者-气味性别一致性对消费者产品评价和购买意向的影响，进一步探讨其可能存在的边界条件。采用3个实验，均以中国某高校学生作为样本。        实验1采用2×2组间实验设计，即产品类别(象征性产品和功能性产品)×环境气味性别(男性和女性)，以移动硬盘作为功能性产品、背包作为象征性产品，探讨对于不同的产品类别，消费者-气味性别一致性对产品评价和购买意向的影响是否存在差异。研究结果表明，只有对于象征性产品，消费者-气味性别一致性会提高消费者的产品评价和购买意向，而对于功能性产品并不存在这种效应。        实验2也采用2×2组间实验设计，即代言人性别(男性和女性)×环境气味性别(男性和女性)，利用不同性别的代言人赋予产品不同的性别倾向，并采用休闲鞋作为被评价的产品，探讨消费者-产品性别一致性对主效应的调节作用。研究结果表明，当消费者-产品性别一致时，将得到实验1的结果，即消费者-气味性别一致性正向影响产品评价和购买意向，而当消费者-产品性别不一致时，这一效应会发生逆转。        为了更好地阐释和佐证实验2的效应，实验3引入恋爱动机这一调节变量，采用2×2×2组间实验设计，即代言人性别(男性和女性)×环境气味性别(男性和女性)×恋爱动机(高和低)。研究结果表明，当被试处于恋爱动机下时，实验2的效应将变得更加显著，即消费者-产品性别一致性的调节作用将更为显著。然而，与低恋爱动机相比，当恋爱动机高时，消费者-产品性别一致性对消费者-气味性别一致性的主效应的调节作用更加显著。        研究结果为先前学者的气味性别一致性的研究结论找到了边界条件，是对已有营销理论普适性和权变性的探索，具有一定的理论创新性。同时提醒企业或商家在选择和使用气味营销时应注意气味与消费者、产品以及其他环境线索之间的协调性。     

本土品牌逆袭与消费者偏好逆转的纵向扎根研究

  如今的中国市场,诸多行业本土品牌崛起甚至逆袭,消费者对全球品牌与本土品牌的偏好相应逆转。已有研究较为全面地揭示了全球品牌和本土品牌偏好的驱动因素,但本土品牌逆袭过程中全球品牌与本土品牌偏好的驱动因素是否相同、本土品牌逆袭与消费者偏好逆转的互动影响路径是怎样的,对这些问题缺乏探讨。         在梳理相关研究的基础上,以手机行业为研究对象,采用扎根理论的研究方法,通过对网络讨论数据的初始编码、聚焦编码和理论编码,首先研究全球品牌与本土品牌偏好的驱动因素的异同,然后结合对讨论数据的纵向统计结果,研究本土品牌逆袭过程中品牌逆袭与消费者偏好逆转的互动影响路径。         研究结果表明,本土品牌逆袭中,全球品牌与本土品牌偏好的驱动因素模型具有相似的结构,功能价值和社会价值的测量受个人因素调节而影响消费者偏好,但测量功能价值或社会价值的具体因素在全球品牌与本土品牌中存在差异。品牌逆袭有助于提升综合国力、促进消费者成熟,进而驱动消费者偏好逆转;消费者偏好逆转则通过反馈路径帮助品牌进一步逆袭。具体的,消费者对产品特质更加重视,全球品牌的原产国效应和符号价值表现力减弱,本土品牌的口碑效应和符号价值表现力增强,同时消费者的民族主义增强而爱国绑架感减弱,这些因素通过感知价值带来消费者偏好逆转。综合而言,本土品牌逆袭和消费者偏好逆转是互动提升的关系。         研究结果丰富了全球品牌和本土品牌的相关研究,为全球品牌和本土品牌的建设提供了实践启示。产品特质是影响消费者偏好的主要因素,并对其他驱动因素有支撑作用。所以全球品牌和本土品牌都要重视产品的创新和研发,还要根据各驱动因素的变化调整其营销策略。     

Educational Landscapes and Urban Development. Contextual and Spatial Interfaces and Linkages

In the broad sociopolitical discussion on education quality within the last decade, it has become apparent that education is gaining importance for urban development, as well as space and the urban context are important dimensions of education. This becomes particularly evident in concepts for local educational landscapes (Ger. Bildungslandschaften). The young field of research on educational landscapes is currently lacking empirical research from spatial and planning sciences. In the paper, the current state of scientific research on educational landscapes in Germany and Europe and first insights to contextual and spatial interfaces and linkages between education and urban development in general are presented.     

Inventory Models with Continuous and Poisson Demands and Discounted and Average Costs

We develop a new, unified approach to treating continuous‐time stochastic inventory problems with both the average and discounted cost criteria. The approach involves the development of an adjusted discounted cycle cost formula, which has an appealing intuitive interpretation. We show for the first time that an (s, S) policy is optimal in the case of demand having a compound Poisson component as well as a constant rate component. Our demand structure simultaneously generalizes the classical EOQ model and the inventory models with Poisson demand, and we indicate the reasons why this task has been a difficult one. We do not require the surplus cost function to be convex or quasi‐convex as has been assumed in the literature. Finally, we show that the optimal s is unique, but we do not know if optimal S is unique.     

CEO and Chairperson characteristics and firm performance

This paper focuses on the relationship between Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and Chairperson characteristics and firm performance. Specifically, the study examines the association between the characteristics of the CEO and the Chairperson of the board and firm performance. Using a sample of S&P 500 firms, the evidence found suggests that demographic and experience-related characteristics may be associated with the market valuation and financial performance of the firm. In particular, the reported results indicate a positive relationship between the presence of female CEOs or Chairs and firm performance, thus suggesting that gender-based differences may affect the CEO’s/Chairperson’s success. Moreover, the findings concerning the age of the CEO or Chair are mixed, while their experience and quality appear positively related to firm performance. Interestingly, a CEO or Chairperson holding multiple board seats is negatively associated with firm performance, whereas CEO duality has a positive relationship with Tobin’s Q and the return on assets (ROA) of the firm.     

E-governance and Corruption-developments and Issues in Ethiopia

This paper reports the results of a survey of 400 respondents in Ethiopia about factors generating corruption and the potential of e-Governance to mitigate corruption. It is suggested that e-Governance can help not only in weeding out corruption but also in the establishment of sounder government citizen relationships in Ethiopia. While e-Governance cannot cure all the structural factors that breed corruption in the society, strategic implementation of e-Governance can help improve the critical variable in combating corruption-government citizen relationships. It is argued that while e-Governance initiatives can make important contributions to improving public services they can best do so by helping improve overall relationships between governments and citizens.

Career orientations and career success among research,and development and engineering professionals

Managing the careers of research, development and engineering (RD&E) professionals is important to the strategic use of RD&E in the economy. Appropriate mechanisms for motivating RD&E professionals will probably emerge as a critical success factor for organizations that want to compete in world markets. This study examines dimensions and levels of career orientation and their correlations with individual and work-related outcome variables among 78 RD&E professionals. The findings reveal a rich diversity of career orientation in RD&E professionals. The data strongly suggest that RD&E professionals are service, lifestyle and security oriented. However, they scored low on technical orientation and entrepreneurship. This paper suggests that the dual career ladder is not an effective device for managing RD&E professionals. Organizations must be careful to provide career paths that retain and motivate workers and, more importantly, find matches between organizational needs and individuals' needs, and restructure jobs accordingly. The authors offer suggestions for future research and identify implications for management.     

David and Goliath: causes and effects of coopetition between start-ups and corporates

Coopetition (collaboration between competitors) among young firms (i.e. start-ups) and larger, more established firms (i.e. corporates) may be beneficial for both partners as each party typically has something to offer that is missing in the other. Start-ups often develop innovative ideas, are flexible and agile, willing to take risks, and aspire to achieve high growth, but they tend to lack the required resources, capabilities, and knowledge due to their newness and smallness. Corporates have resources, routines, and experience that enable them to work efficiently but lack a certain innovation capability. Research has suggested that coopetition represents an opportunity for start-ups facing restrictions in resources, while corporates benefit from start-ups’ innovative ideas. However, it is yet unknown whether start-ups and corporates engage in coopetition with each other and, if so, how and why they do this. This study seeks to fill this void by exploring the motives of coopeting start-ups and corporates, how they manage their coopetitive relationship, and what implications occur including potential benefits and risks. We present a multiple case study based on qualitative data collected through 70 interviews with Austrian-based start-ups and corporates representing 35 coopetitive partnerships. Discussing the findings based on our data, we propose relationships concerning coopetition and its role to enlarge resource- and technology-bases as well as its role in the development of dynamic capabilities.     

Work and shopping overflow — Consequences and differentiation among selected psychological and demographic characteristics

Contemporary individuals are forced to deal with excessive stimulation, which causes an overload in the cognitive and emotional areas. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the possible factors differentiating the perceived level of work and shopping overflow experienced by individuals and consequences of these states. Two psychological variables: cognitive control and sensation seeking, are chosen as potential factors differentiating the perceived levels of overflow. We assume that individuals with high cognitive control and sensation seeking will report lower levels of both types of examined overflows. Experiencing low overflow levels may manifest in the search for additional stimuli, rather than in the desire to limit them. Two indexes of behavior connected to seeking extra stimulation are selected: one belonging to the area of consumer behavior (readiness to participate in the experience economy) and one belonging to vocational behavior (choosing a boundaryless career). The quantitative study is conducted on a sample of 297 management students who are currently employed. The research results support the relation between cognitive control and perceived level of work and shopping overflow. Individuals who can cognitively control the situation and the incoming stimuli report lower levels of overflow. No significant relationship between sensation seeking and the level of overflow is found. The demographic variables that influence the perceived overflow are age and salary for work overflow and age for shopping overflow. As far as consequences of overflow are concerned, a low level of shopping overflow is related to readiness to participate in the experience economy. However, there is no link between work overflow and preferred career pattern. The managerial implications for human resource management and marketing strategy design are discussed.     

Review and reappraisal of modelling and predicting mental workload in single- and multi-task environments

The concept of mental workload has long been recognized as an important factor in individual performance within complex systems. It is documented that either overload or underload may degrade performance, and further affect the efficiency of the whole system. Therefore, systems designers need some explicit models to predict the mental workload imposed on individuals by the system at an early design phase so that alternative system designs can be evaluated. In examining mental-workload literature, it is found that few predictive mental-workload models have considered factors specific to individuals. This research aims to develop a practical framework for predicting mental workload in both single- and multi-task environments considering such individual factors. In order to describe mental workload more precisely and more completely, a framework for mentalworkload definitions, which contains instantaneous workload, average workload, accumulated workload, peak workload and overall workload, is proposed. In order to model individual factors, two new variables, i.e. effective workload and ineffective workload, are introduced to model the taskgenerated workload and individual-generated workload. The extension of the model to multi-task environments is also discussed. The proposed conceptual models are domain-independent and could be used to guide the development of operational models for different specific tasks.