三聚氰胺及其衍生物与肾功能损害

近期奶粉受三聚氰胺污染事件被广泛瞩目,造成食用污染奶粉的婴幼儿发生泌尿系结石、肾功能损害,甚至最终导致肾衰.     

食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉相关泌尿系结石患儿的随访

目的：了解食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉相关泌尿系结石患儿的预后情况。方法：用B型超声检查泌尿系统,对北京大学第三医院儿科食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉相关泌尿系结石患儿共47例进行定期随访。结果：研究随访至6个月时,36例（77%）患儿的泌尿系结石自行排出,仅有7例泌尿系结石仍然存在,失访4例,随访中患者均未出现合并症;泌尿系结石的排出与暴露于污染奶粉中三聚氰胺量和时间无关,但与结石部位有关;男童泌尿系结石自行排出时间比女童长,但差异无统计学意义。结论：食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉相关泌尿系结石患儿的预后良好,大多数患儿的泌尿系结石可以自行排出。［中国当代儿科杂志,2010,12（4）：278-279］     

三聚氰胺与婴幼儿尿路结石

目的 探讨三聚氰胺污染奶粉喂养史婴幼儿泌尿系结石临床特点.方法 回顾性分析165例三聚氰胺污染奶粉喂养史泌尿系结石住院婴幼儿的临床资料.患儿按照卫生部推荐的<诊疗方案>进行治疗.另选30例无三聚氰胺污染奶粉喂养史住院病例作为对照组.结果 患儿发病年龄2岁以内占83.6%(138/165),其中6～12个月患儿占41.2%(68/165).患儿中49.7%(82/165)有临床症状,主要表现为排尿困难16.9%(28/165)、不明原因哭闹14.6%(24/165)、少尿无尿10.9%(18/165)及血尿7.3%(12/165).共发现233处结石,肾结石患儿比例高达79.5%(131/165),尿道结石仅1.2%(2/165).结石直径为2～16 mm,其中4～10mm占63.5%(148/233),>10mm者9.9%(23/233).除1例双肾结石尿路梗阻行逆行输尿管插管手术治疗外,其他患儿均采用保守治疗.治疗(9±5)d后患儿症状均消失,结石排出率为43.0%.结论 三聚氰胺污染奶粉喂养能引起婴幼儿泌尿系结石,多在喂养6～12个月后发病.非手术治疗效果好.     

3108例食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉儿童筛查结果分析

目的 探讨佛山地区食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉小儿泌尿系结石的分布情况.方法 对因食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉就诊的小儿进行尿常规及B超检查,经临床及B超确诊为泌尿系结石的患儿进一步检查肝、肾功能及腹部平片,并进行临床埘比分析.结果 3 108名就诊小儿中,B超结果提示肾脏强光团51例(1.64%),符合国家卫生部颁发的.肾结石诊断标准8例.B超检查结果异常以食用三鹿奶粉儿为主(P<0.05),且泌尿系B超有无强光团与患儿年龄相关(X2=12.43,P<0.05).结论 食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉引起泌尿系异常与三聚氰胺的含量相关,与年龄相关.     

食用含三聚氰胺奶粉致婴幼儿泌尿系统结石的危险因素

目的探讨食用含三聚氰胺奶粉致婴幼儿泌尿系统结石的危险因素。方法2008年本院在对食用含三聚氰胺奶粉婴幼儿进行泌尿系统结石筛查的基础上,对242例泌尿系统结石患儿[病例组。男149例,女93例;年龄(19.092±9.903)个月;食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉时间(14.960±9.055)个月]和242例无尿路结石的婴幼儿[对照组。男149例,女93例;年龄(18.682±9.558)个月;食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉时间(15.240±9.356)个月]进行病例对照研究,以年龄、性别、城乡区域、喂养方式相同作为配比条件。从既往研究和已有文献中选取7项可能影响泌尿系统结石形成的相关危险因素,采用SPSS12.0软件对数据进行χ2检验、单因素及多因素条件Logistic回归分析。结果食用含三聚氰胺高的三鹿奶粉患儿165例,其中结石患儿151例,占总数的62.40%;食用非三鹿奶粉319例,泌尿系结石91例,占37.60%。单因素分析显示,在选取的7种危险因素中,仅食用不同品牌含三聚氰胺奶粉、平均每日饮水量在病例组与对照组间比较差异有统计学意义(Pa<0.01),但饮用水来源、出汗量、补充钙剂、奶粉冲服方式和奶粉食用时间比较差异...     

与食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉相关儿童泌尿系统结石的

目的探讨食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉与儿童泌尿系统结石发生的关系。方法对0~14岁食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉的儿童,通过其家长填写调查问卷、临床问诊、体格检查、尿常规、泌尿系统B超、肾功能、肝功能及其他血、尿生化指标等检查,筛查是否存在泌尿系统结石及其他损害。将受三聚氰胺污染的配方奶粉分为三聚氰胺高含量组和三聚氰胺低含量组,将食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉的时间分为≤30 d和＞30 d,依据年龄分为≤1岁、～2岁、～3岁、～6岁和～14岁组。分析性别、年龄、配方奶粉中不同三聚氰胺含量和用奶时间对泌尿系统结石发生的影响。分析泌尿系统结石患儿的临床表现、实验室检查结果及病情转归。结果接受筛查儿童22 091名,患泌尿系统结石374名,其中男性223名,女性151名,男∶女约为1.5∶1。①泌尿系统结石发生率：≤3岁各年龄组,三聚氰胺高含量组均高于三聚氰胺低含量组（P<0.001）;～6岁组,三聚氰胺高含量组高于三聚氰胺低含量组（P<0.05）;～14岁组,三聚氰胺高含量组与三聚氰胺低含量组差异无统计学意义（P>0.05）。三聚氰胺高含量组各相邻年龄组儿童泌尿系统结石发生率差异均无统计学意义（P>0.05）;三聚氰胺低含量组除≤1岁组与～2岁组泌尿系统结石发生率差异有统计学意义外（P<0.05）,其余各相邻年龄组差异均无统计学意义（P>0.05）。②单侧肾结石309例,双侧肾结石60例,单侧输尿管结石6例,双侧输尿管结石2例,膀胱结石4例,尿道结石2例。③93例住院治疗的泌尿系统结石患儿中,血尿8例（8.6%）、脓尿7例(7.5%)、蛋白尿3例（3.2%）、尿痛或尿哭5例（5.4%）、少尿或无尿2例（2.2%）、水肿2例（2.2%）、血β2-微球蛋白（β2-MG）增高25例（26.9%）、尿β2-MG增高4例（4.3%）;BUN和SCr增高各2例（2.2%）,均无磷酸激酶同工酶和ALT升高。9例需外科治疗,其余内科保守治疗。治愈34例,好转55例,未愈2例,自动出院或转院2例。结论食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉与儿童泌尿系统结石的发生有关,泌尿系统结石发生可能与年龄无关,与食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉相关的泌尿系统结石可能对肾脏有一定损害。     

三聚氰胺致儿童泌尿系统结石并胆道结石3例

小儿上尿路结石、胆道结石较少见,2008年9月24日-10月7日本院对6996例食用奶粉的婴幼儿进行结石筛查,对B超发现结石者行CT复查,CT确诊泌尿系统结石82例。其中发现3例泌尿系统结石伴胆道结石。现报告如下。1临床资料例1,男,3岁,食含三聚氰胺奶粉2个月,B超筛查诊断右肾结石。CT扫     

与食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉相关儿童泌尿系统结石的现况调查

目的 探讨食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉与儿童泌尿系统结石发生的关系.方法 对0～14岁食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉的儿童,通过其家长填写调查问卷、临床问诊、体格检查、尿常规、泌尿系统B超、肾功能、肝功能及其他血、尿生化指标等检查,筛查是否存在泌尿系统结石及其他损害.将受三聚氰胺污染的配方奶粉分为三聚氰胺高含量组和三聚氰胺低含量组,将食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉的时间分为≤30 d和>30 d,依据年龄分为≤1岁、～2岁、～3岁、～6岁和～14岁组.分析性别、年龄、配方奶粉中不同三聚氰胺含量和用奶时间对泌尿系统结石发生的影响.分析泌尿系统结石患儿的临床表现、实验室检查结果及病情转归.结果 接受筛查儿童22 091名,患泌尿系统结石374名,其中男性223名,女性151名,男:女约为1.5∶1.①泌尿系统结石发生率:≤3岁各年龄组,三聚氰胺高含量组均高于三聚氰胺低含量组(P<0.001);～6岁组,三聚氰胺高含量组高于三聚氰胺低含量组(P<0.05);～14岁组,三聚氰胺高含量组与三聚氰胺低含量组差异无统计学意义(P>0.05).三聚氰胺高含量组各相邻年龄组儿童泌尿系统结石发生率差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05);三聚氰胺低含量组除≤1岁组与～2岁组泌尿系统结石发生率差异有统计学意义外(P<0.05),其余各相邻年龄组差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05).②单侧肾结石309例,双侧肾结石60例,单侧输尿管结石6例,双侧输尿管结石2例,膀胱结石4例,尿道结石2例.③93例住院治疗的泌尿系统结石患儿中,血尿8例(8.6%)、脓尿7例(7.5%)、蛋白尿3例(3.2%)、尿痛或尿哭5例(5.4%)、少尿或无尿2例(2.2%)、水肿2例(2.2%)、血β<,2>-微球蛋白(β<,2>-MG)增高25例(26.9%)、尿β<,2>-MG增高4例(4.3%);BUN和SCr增高各2例(2.2%),均无磷酸激酶同工酶和ALT升高.9例需外科治疗,其余内科保守治疗.治愈34例,好转55例,未愈2例,自动出院或转院2例.结论 食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉与儿童泌尿系统结石的发生有关,泌尿系统结石发生可能与年龄无关,与食用受三聚氰胺污染配方奶粉相关的泌尿系统结石可能对肾脏有一定损害.     

三聚氰胺泌尿系结石住院婴幼儿一年后随访结果分析

目的 了解2008年喂养三聚氰胺污染奶粉1年后对婴幼儿泌尿系发育的影响.方法 选取178例,随访时年龄:(29.3±9.6)个月,曾住院治疗的三聚氰胺泌尿系结石(MUS)婴幼儿进行16个月随访.随访内容包括泌尿系超声、尿、血常规和肾功能检查及疗效.选取同期非纯母乳和无三聚氰胺污染奶粉喂养史正常儿童110例为对照组(CG),年龄:(29.6±10.1)个月,比较两组相关参数异同.结果 161例成功随访;89例带石出院患儿院外行保守治疗,随访时56例结石消失,25例变小,7例无明显变化,1例增大.MUS患儿补钙的比例明显低于CG、身高偏低的比例显著高于CG(P<0.05).随访未发现泌尿系占位病变.尿常规、血常规无异常,肾和膀胱功能及形态均未见明显异常.结论 食用三聚氰胺污染奶粉1年后对婴幼儿身体和泌尿系发育未产生明显影响.     

婴幼儿三聚氰胺相关泌尿系结石并发急性肾衰竭诊疗分析

目的 探讨食用受三聚氰胺污染的婴幼儿配方奶粉致泌尿系结石并发急性肾衰竭患儿的临床特点、诊断和治疗措施.方法 回顾性分析首都医科大学附属北京儿童医院和徐州市儿童医院2008年收治的34例因食用三聚氰胺污染的婴幼儿配方奶粉致泌尿系结石、梗阻发生急性肾衰竭的患儿.分析其流行病学、临床表现及影像学特点,总结4种不同的治疗方法 及疗效.结果 34名患儿均存在急性肾衰竭,血尿素氮(24.1±8.2)mmol/L,血肌酐(384.2±201.2)μmol/L.对留取的14例结石标本分析证实,结石是三聚氰胺和尿酸的合成体.膀胱镜治疗组血肌酐降至正常的平均时间为(3.5±1.9)d;切开取石组(2.7±1.1)d;透析组(3.8±2.3)d;内科保守治疗组(2.7±1.6)d.四组肾功能恢复时间差异无统计学意义(P=0.508),组问差异无统计学意义(P=0.803～1).经治疗34例患儿急性肾衰竭全部治愈,泌尿系结石完全或部分排出.肾功能恢复时间为(3.0±1.8)d.结论 三聚氰胺污染婴幼儿配方奶粉可以导致婴幼儿泌尿系结石引发的梗阻性急性肾衰竭,治疗首选药物或透析方法 纠正电解质紊乱,特别是高钾血症,尽快通过内、外科方法 解除梗阻引流尿液.患儿近期预后良好.     

Follow-up results of children with melamine induced urolithiasis: a prospective observational cohort study

Background

Melamine-contaminated milk powder was the cause of the 2008 outbreak of urolithiasis in young children and infants in China, but the prognosis of these children remains unknown. We hypothesized that urolithiasis induced by melamine-contaminated milk powder may be associated with secondary renal injury.

Methods

A total of 8335 children (≤6 years old) with a history of consuming melamine-contaminated milk powder were screened. Urine analysis and urinary system ultrasonography were performed. For children with urolithiasis, the basic information and the results of examination were recorded, and effective therapy was given. They were followed up for 6 months after the original diagnosis, and urinary microprotein profiles were measured.

Results

Of the 8335 children, 105 (1.26%) were diagnosed with melamine-contaminated milk powder-associated urolithiasis. The size of the stone was correlated with the duration of exposure to melamine. Six months later, 69.8% (67) of the children with urolithiasis passed stones (follow-up rate: 91.4%). Of the 67 children, 28 passed stones within 2 months. The higher possibility of passing a stone was correlated with the smaller diameter of the stone (P<0.001). The detection rate of abnormal urinary microprotein excretion (microalbumin, immunoglobulin G, and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosidase) was 52.4% in children with persistent stones and 38.2% in those who passed their stones. The detection rate was lower in children who passed stones within 2 months (31.8%) than in those who passed stones in 2 to 6 months (50.0%). The levels of microalbumin/creatinine and immunoglobulin G/creatinine were significantly higher in children with persistent stones than in those who passed their stones.

Conclusions

Early passage of a stone may reduce the renal injury induced by melamine-contaminated milk powder-associated urolithiasis.     

Melamine-contaminated milk products induced urinary tract calculi in children

Background  Melamine is an industrial chemical used primarily as plastics stabilizer and fire retardant. On September 11, 2008, melamine-contaminated milk products were reported to be responsible for urinary tract calculi in infants and children in China. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence, lesions, risk factors, clinical features, and management of children fed with the melamine-contaminated milk products. Methods  A total of 15 577 infants and children fed with the milk products were screened at our hospital. Ultrasonography was performed in all the infants and children. For those found with urinary tract calculion ultrasonography, urnalysis was done. Among them, 846 with detailed data screened from September 17 to 25 were enrolled for further analysis in this study. They were divided into calculus group (326 children) and non-calculus group (520 children) according to the results of ultrasonography. They included 429 boys and 417 girls, aged from 1 month to 5 years (median, 18 months). Their clinical and laboratory data, ultrasonograms, and treatment results were analyzed. Results  Of the 15 577 children screened, 562 (3.61%) had urinary tract calculi. The rate was closely related to the melamine concentration in patients fed with formula. In 846 children with detailed data enrolled in this analysis, weight and head circumference Z scores in the calculus group were lower than those in the non-calculus group (P=0.048, P=0.046). Long duration of formula feeding, high melamine contained formula, and minimal water intake were the risk factors for calculi (P<0.05, respectively). Of 326 children with calculi, 281 had small calculiless than 0.5 cm in diameter, 227 had multiple calculi, and 34 had urinary tract distention. Moreover, diffuse renal lesions, renal failure and ascites were noted in 4, 3 and 2 patients, respectively. After 1-month treatment with sodium bicarbonate and Chinese traditional medicine, calculi disappeared in 49 of 54 outpatients. In 41 inpatients, 5 had calculi removed operatively and 36 had calculi minimized. Conclusions  Melamine-contaminated milk products induced urinary tract calculi, which have a good response to conservative therapy. Long-term follow-up of infants and children fed with melamine-contaminated milk products is required, and food safety should be supervised increasingly for the health of children.     

儿童泌尿系统梗阻畸形合并上尿路结石的术中内镜治疗

目的 探讨儿童泌尿系统梗阻畸形外科手术中联合内镜治疗儿童泌尿系统梗阻畸形合并上尿路结石的安全性和有效性.方法 回顾分析我院小儿外科2010年1月1日至2013年8月31日收治的17例儿童泌尿系统梗阻畸形合并上尿路结石的患儿临床资料.男13例,女4例,年龄3～12岁,平均年龄5.9岁,左侧14例,右侧3例.肾积水、UPJO合并肾脏结石11例,输尿管膀胱连接处狭窄合并肾盂内结石3例,输尿管膀胱连接处狭窄合并输尿管末端结石者2例,输尿管膀胱连接处狭窄合并肾输尿管多处结石1例,结石直径4～12 mm.结果 11例肾积水、UPJO(肾盂输尿管连接处狭窄)患儿均顺利行离断式肾盂输尿管成形术,术中均行经肾盂输尿管镜或膀胱镜检查肾盂内各盏,10例患儿成功取出结石,1例术中未见找到结石,术后辅助行体外震波碎石治疗(ESWL).6例输尿管膀胱连接处狭窄(UVJO)患儿均顺利行膀胱外输尿管膀胱再植术,术中4例顺利行输尿管硬镜检查术,2例顺利行输尿管软镜检查术,结石顺利取出4例,2例术中检查未能发现结石.结论 对于儿童泌尿系统梗阻畸形合并上尿路结石,在梗阻畸形外科手术治疗的同时联合内镜治疗上尿路结石是理想、安全、有效的.     

头孢曲松钠导致小儿泌尿系结石及急性肾功能衰竭9例诊治体会

目的探讨应用头孢曲松钠不当导致泌尿系结石、急性肾功能衰竭的可行性治疗方案。方法分析本院自2010年1月至2013年6月收治的9例因应用头孢曲松钠不当导致泌尿系结石、急性肾功能衰竭患儿的临床资料。结果9例泌尿系彩超均提示双肾实质弥漫性回声增强,肾盏、肾盂及输尿管内见泥沙样强回声物。双侧6例,单侧3例。8例伴输尿管扩张、肾积水,1例无明显肾积水。X线检查均未见阳性结石显影。入院后均给予解痉及碱化尿液、护。肾治疗,7例联合膀胱镜下输尿管逆行插管冲洗治疗,其中1例插管失败,行腹膜透析治疗。治疗1周,尿量稳定后复查泌尿系彩超,9例结石均消失。肾实质回声恢复正常,伴有肾、输尿管积水的患儿积水范围全部缩小或消失。结论应用头孢曲松钠不当可以导致小儿泌尿系统结石、急性肾功能不全或衰竭,解痉、碱化尿液,必要时辅以手术治疗可有效逆转肾功能损害,结石多能在尿量恢复正常后排出。     

Minimally invasive percutaneous nephrolithotomy in preschool age children with kidney calculi (including stones induced by melamine-contaminated milk powder)

Purpose

This study was undertaken to assess the safety and efficacy of minimally invasive percutaneous nephrolithotomy (mini-PCNL) using ureteroscope and pneumatic intracorporeal lithotripsy in preschool age children with kidney calculi.

Methods

We studied 27 renal units in 20 patients of preschool age (≤6?years) who underwent mini-PCNL at our institute. The mean age was 42.6?months (range 14–68?months). The average stone burden was 1.85?cm (range 0.9–2.8?cm). Eight patients aged 14 to 58?months had been exposed to melamine-tainted powdered formula. The mini-PCNL was performed with an X-ray-guided peripheral puncture. Minimal tract dilatation was undertaken to fit a 14–16?Fr peel-away sheath. Ureteroscope and pneumatic intracorporeal lithotripsy were used to fragment the stones.

Results

Complete clearance was achieved in 23 renal units (85.2?%) with mini-PCNL monotherapy. This has increased to 92.6?% after adjunctive ESWL. The average fall in hemoglobin was 1.28?g/dL. None of the patients required blood transfusion. The median length of hospital stay was 8.2?days. Patients were followed up every 6?months for 2?years. There has been only one recurrence of stone and no long-term complications.

Conclusion

Mini-PCNL is a effective treatment for pediatric kidney stones refractory to extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, including stones induced by melamine-contaminated milk powder. The “mini-PCNL” technique, which uses ureteroscope and pneumatic intracorporeal lithotripsy, is a safe and feasible modality for treating renal calculi in preschool age children.     

Continuous renal replacement therapy for patients with acute kidney injury caused by melamine-related urolithiasis

Background  

In 2008 there was an epidemic of renal disease affecting infants after consumption of melaminetainted milk products. Most of the infected children were asymptomatic or with mild symptoms, and a few suffered from acute obstructive kidney injury secondary to melamine-contained renal stones (8 of 15 577 children screened at our hospital for urolithiasis). This study was intended to retrospectively review the management of acute kidney injury using continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) in the 8 children with acute kidney injury.     

经皮肾穿刺碎石取石术治疗婴幼儿肾结石

目的探讨微创经皮肾穿刺碎石取石术（MPCNL）治疗婴幼儿肾结石的疗效与安全性。方法回顾性分析湖南省儿童医院2008年10月至2011年2月,应用经皮肾穿刺术钬激光治疗婴幼儿肾结石47例的临床资料。结果47例患儿50个肾脏行50次mini—PCNL治疗,其中一期碎石取石成功46个肾脏,二期碎石取石成功3个。肾脏,结石残留1例。单通道取石49个肾脏,双通道取石1个。肾脏。3例肾盂输尿管交界处狭窄（UPJO）患儿经钬激光内切开,8例息肉切除。术中通道迷失1例,经再穿刺成功。术后血红蛋白浓度平均下降2．5g／dL。2例肾功能异常者术后1—3d恢复正常。术后拔出DJ管后4周复查B超或X线平片,结石排尽率94％（47／50）,术后3个月复查,除1例结石残余外,其余均排尽。手术肾脏未见缩小,IVU检查提示8例双肾显影正常。38例肾积水患儿中,30例肾积水消失,8例由中重度肾积水转为轻度肾积水。47例术后随访2个月至1年6个月,无其他并发症。结论在明确掌握适应证和操作熟练的情况下,经皮肾穿刺碎石取石术治疗婴幼儿肾结石安全、有效,是一种较为理想的方法。     

Melamine‐tainted milk product‐associated urinary stones in children

Background: An outbreak of urinary stones related to consumption of melamine‐tainted milk products (MTMP) occurred in China in 2008. The aim of the present study was to evaluate such children to identify their clinical features and risk factors. Methods: Renal ultrasound was performed for 7328 children who presented to a Sichuan teaching hospital between 13 September and 15 October 2008 due to concern of such stones. Clinical data, family information, feeding history and urinary stones were analyzed. Results: Of the 7328 children, 189 (2.58%) had ultrasound findings of urinary stones, and 51 were admitted. Age (mean ± SD) was 27.4 ± 25.5 months, and 101 were male and 88, female. The odds ratio (OR) for urinary stones for infants and young children (1–3 years) as compared to older children (>3 years), was 2.42 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.64–3.56; P < 0.0001) and 1.95 (95%CI, 1.31–2.89; P < 0.0011), respectively. Independent risk factors associated with urinary stones included consumption of MTMP with melamine at >5500 mg/kg (OR, 13.3; 95%CI, 6.8–26.1, P < 0.0001) as compared to that with melamine at <200 mg/kg, and younger father (P = 0.0006). On logistic regression, the only risk factor associated with inpatient care was lower family income per person (OR, 4.4; 95%CI, 1.2–15.9, P = 0.02). Repeat ultrasound for 51 children at mean follow up of 15.3 ± 8.9 days found that 33 passed out all stones, which was associated with a larger number of smaller stones (P = 0.003). Urinary stones contained melamine and uric acid, but no cyanuric acid. Conclusions: MTMP‐associated urinary stones were more frequent in young children and more severe in children from poorer families.