Closing the nitrogen use efficiency gap and reducing the environmental impact of wheat-maize cropping on smallholder farms in the Guanzhong Plain,Northwest China

A high crop yield with the minimum possible cost to the environment is generally desirable. However, the complicated relationships among crop production, nitrogen (N) use efficiency and environmental impacts must be clearly assessed. We conducted a series of on-farm N application rate experiments to establish the linkage between crop yield and N₂O emissions in the Guanzhong Plain in Northwest China. We also examined crop yield, partial factor productivity of applied N (PFPN) and reactive N (Nr) losses through a survey of 1 529 and 1 497 smallholder farms that grow wheat and maize, respectively, in the region. The optimum N rates were 175 and 214 kg ha^–1 for winter wheat and summer maize, respectively, thereby achieving the yields of 6 799 and 7 518 kg ha^–1, correspondingly, with low N₂O emissions based on on-farm N rate experiments. Among the smallholder farms, the average N application rates were 215 and 294 kg ha^–1 season^–1, thus producing 6 490 and 6 220 kg ha^–1 of wheat and maize, respectively. The corresponding PFPN values for the two crops were 36.8 and 21.2 kg N kg^–1, and the total N₂O emissions were 1.50 and 3.88 kg ha^–1, respectively. High N balance, large Nr losses and elevated N₂O emissions could be explained by the overdoses of N application and low grain yields under the current farming practice. The crop yields, N application rates, PFPN and total N₂O for wheat and maize were 18 and 24% higher, 42 and 37% less, 75 and 116% higher, and 42 and 47% less, correspondingly, in the high-yield and high-PFPN group than in the average smallholder farms. In conclusion, closing the PFPN gap between the current average and the value for the high-yield and high-PFPN group would increase crop production and reduce Nr losses or the total N₂O emissions for the investigated cropping system in Northwest China.     

Identifying the limiting factors driving the winter wheat yield gap on smallholder farms by agronomic diagnosis in North China Plain

North China Plain(NCP) is the primary winter wheat production region in China, characterized by smallholder farming systems. Whereas the winter wheat average yield of smallholder farmers is currently low, the yield potential and limiting factors driving the current yield gap remain unclear. Therefore, increasing the wheat yield in NCP is essential for the national food security. This study monitored wheat yield, management practices and soil nutrient data in 132 farmers' fields of Xushui County, Baoding City, Hebei Province during 2014–2016. These data were analyzed using variance and path analysis to determine the yield gap and the contribution of yield components(i.e., spikes per hectare, grain number per spike and 1 000-grain weight) to wheat yield. Then, the limiting factors of yield components and the optimizing strategies were identified by a boundary line approach. The results showed that the attainable potential yield for winter wheat was 10 514 kg ha~(–1). The yield gaps varied strongly between three yield groups(i.e., high, middle and low), which were divided by yield level and contained 44 farmers in each group, and amounted to 2 493, 1 636 and 814 kg ha~(–1), respectively. For the three yield components, only spikes per hectare was significantly different(P0.01) among the three yield groups. For all 132 farmers' fields, correlation between yield and spikes per hectare(r=0.51, P0.01), was significantly positive, while correlations with grain number per spike(r=–0.16) and 1 000-grain weight(r=–0.10) were not significant. The path analysis also showed that the spikes per hectare of winter wheat were the most important component to the wheat yield. Boundary line analysis showed that seeding date was the most limiting factor of spikes per hectare with the highest contribution rate(26.7%), followed by basal N input(22.1%) and seeding rate(14.5%), which indicated that management factors in the seeding step were the most important for affecting spikes per hectare. For desired spikes per hectare(6.598×10~6 ha~(–1)),the seeding rate should range from 210–300 kg ha~(–1), seeding date should range from 3th to 8th October, and basal N input should range from 90~(–1)80 kg ha~(–1). Compared to these reasonable ranges of management measures, most of the farmers' practices were not suitable, and both lower and higher levels of management existed. It is concluded that the strategies for optimizing yield components could be achieved by improving wheat seeding quality and optimizing farmers' nutrient management practices in the NCP.     

Impacts of Fertilization Alternatives and Crop Straw Incorporation on N2O Emissions from a Spring Maize Field in Northeastern China

Spring maize is one of the most popular crops planted in northeastem China. The cropping systems involving spring maize have been maintaining high production through intensive management practices. However, the high rates of nitrogen （N） fertilizers application could have introduced a great amount of nitrous oxide （N2O） into the atmosphere. It is crucial for sustaining the maize production systems to reduce N2O emissions meanwhile maintaining the optimum yields by adopting alternative farming management practices. The goal of this study was to evaluate effects of alternative fertilization and crop residue management practices on N2O emission as well as crop yield for a typical maize field in northeastern China. Field experiments were conducted during the 2010-2011 maize growing seasons （from early May to late September） in Liaoning Province, northeastern China. N2O fluxes were measured at the field plots with six different treatments including no N fertilizer use （CK）, farmers＇ conventional N fertilizer application rate （FP）, reduced N fertilizer rate （OPT）, reduced N fertilizer rate combined with crop straw amendment （OPTS）, slow-release N fertilizer （CRF）, and reduced N fertilizer rate combined with nitrification inhibitor （OPT＋DCD）. The static chamber method combined with gas chromatography technique was employed to conduct the measurements of N2O fluxes. The field data showed that N2O emissions varied across the treatments. During the maize growing season in 2010, the total N2O emissions under the treatments of CK, FP, OPT, OPTS, and CRF were 0.63, 1.11, 1.03, 1.26, and 0.98 kg N ha-1, respectively. The seasonal cumulative N2O emissions were 0.54, 1.07, 0.96, 1.12, and 0.84 kg N ha1, respectively, under CK, FP, OPT, OPTS, and OPT＋DCD in 2011. In comparison with FP, CRF or OPT＋DCD reduced the N2O emissions by 12 or 21%, respectively, while the crop yields remained unchanged. The results indicate that the reduction of N-fertilizer application rate in combination with the slow-release fertilizer type or nitrification inhibitor could effectively mitigate N2O emissions from the tested field. The incorporation of crop residue didn＇t show positive effect on mitigating N2O emissions from the tested cropping system. The field study can provide useful information for the on-going debate on alternative N fertilization strategies and crop straw management in China. However, further studies would be needed to explore the long-term impacts of the alternative management practices on a wide range of environmental services.     

A new feasible method for yield gap analysis in regions dominanted by smallholder farmers,with a case study of Jiangsu Province,China

In the regions where crops were mostly produced by smallholder farmers, the analysis of yield gap is difficult due to diverse cultivars, crop managements and yield levels. In order to find an effective method that can reasonably verify the yield gap and the limiting cultivation factors in narrowing yield gaps in areas that are dominanted by smallholder farmers, we worked out a method consisting five progressive procedures as follows: questionnaire investigation of farmer cultivation regime, identification of yield levels and yield gaps, generalization of key cultivation measurements, reconstruction of representative maize populations, and process-based analysis of yield gap. A case study was carried out in Jiangsu Province, China, in which maize is mostly produced by smallholder farmers. A questionnaire investigation of 1 023 smallholder farmers was carried out firstly, then the frequency distribution of maize yield was simulated by an normal distribution function, and then the covering range and average value of the basic yield, farmer yield and high-yield farmer yield levels were calculated out from the equation. Hereby, the yield gaps 1, 2 and 3 were calculated along with the record highest yield from literature and experts, which were 2 564, 2 346 and 2 073 kg ha~(–1), respectively. Moreover, with the covering range of each yield level, the suveyed farmers belonging to each yield level were grouped together and then their major cultivation measures were traced and generalized. With the generalized cultivation measures, representative maize populations of the four yield levels were reconstructed, and thereby clarifing lots of characters of the populations or single plant of each population with processbased analysis of the reconstructed populations. In this case, the main factors causing the yield gap were plant density, fertilizer application rate, logging caused by hurricane, and damages caused by pests. The case study primarily indicated that this five-step method is feasible and effective in yield gap study, especially in smallholder farmers dominant regions.     

Trends of Yield and Soil Fertility in a Long-Term Wheat-Maize System

The sustainability of the wheat-maize rotation is important to China＇s food security. Intensive cropping without recycling crop residues or other organic inputs results in the loss of soil organic matter （SOM） and nutrients, and is assumed to be non- sustainable. We evaluated the effects of nine different treatments on yields, nitrogen use efficiency, P and K balances, and soil fertility in a wheat-maize rotation system （1991-2010） on silt clay loam in Shaanxi, China. The treatments involved the application of recommended dose of nitrogen （N）, nitrogen and phosphorus （NP）, nitrogen and potassium （NK）, phosphorus and potassium （PK）, combined NPK, wheat or maize straw （S） with NPK （SNPK）, or dairy manure （M） with NPK （M1NPK and M2NPK）, along with an un-treated control treatment （CK）. The mean yields of wheat and maize ranged from 992 and 2 235 kg ha-1 under CK to 5 962 and 6 894 kg ha-1 under M2NPK treatment, respectively. Treatments in which either N or P was omitted （N, NK and PK） gave significantly lower crop yields than those in which both were applied. The crop yields obtained under NP, NPK and SNPK treatments were statistically identical, as were those obtained under SNPK and MNPK. However, M2NPK gave a significant higher wheat yield than NP, and MNPK gave significant higher maize yield than both NP and NPK. Wheat yields increased significantly （by 86 to 155 kg ha-1 yr-1） in treatments where NP was applied, but maize yields did not. In general, the nitrogen use efficiency of wheat was the highest under the NP and NPK treatments; for maize, it was the highest under MNPK treatment. The P balance was highly positive under MNPK treatment, increasing by 136 to 213 kg ha-1 annually. While the K balance was negative in most treatments, ranging from 31 to 217 kg ha^-1 yr^-1, levels of soil available K remained unchanged or increased over the 20 yr. SOM levels increased significantly in all treatments. Overall, the results indicated that combinations of organic manure and inorganic nitrogen, or retuming straw with NP is likely to improve soil fertility, increasing the yields achievable with wheat-maize system in a way which is environmentally and agronomically beneficial on the tested soil.     

地膜覆盖、氮肥与密度及其互作对黄土旱塬春玉米氮素吸收、转运及生产效率的影响

【目的】以紧凑型玉米品种先玉335为供试作物,研究地膜覆盖、施氮量、种植密度及其互作对春玉米氮素吸收转运及利用效率的影响,以期为黄土高原半干旱区春玉米高产高效栽培提供理论依据。【方法】2013—2014年春玉米生长季,设置覆盖方式(覆膜和不覆膜)、施氮量(2013年为0、170、200和230 kg N·hm~(-2),2014年为0、170、225和280 kg N·hm~(-2))和种植密度(5.0×10~4、6.5×10~4和8.0×10~4株/hm~2)3个因子,分析不同处理的氮素累积与转运、产量及氮肥生产效率。【结果】地膜覆盖显著增加了玉米吐丝前氮素累积量,促进了吐丝后氮素累积和吐丝前累积氮素的再转移,从而显著提高了籽粒氮素累积量和籽粒产量。覆盖方式与氮肥或密度互作显著影响春玉米氮素吸收、累积和转移。地膜覆盖条件下更多的氮肥(200—230 kg N·hm~(-2))或更高的密度(6.5×10~4—8.0×10~4株/hm~2)投入能有效促进吐丝前储存更多的氮素向籽粒转运,提高吐丝后期氮同化量及其对籽粒的贡献率,从而提高了籽粒氮素累积量;而不覆盖条件下当施氮量超过170 kg N·hm~(-2)或密度超过5.0×104株/hm~2时,吐丝后氮同化量及其对籽粒的贡献显著减少,从而导致吐丝前氮素储备的增加未能有效增加籽粒氮素累积。氮肥与密度互作显著影响氮素累积、吸收和转移。氮肥偏生产力(PFPN)和氮素收获指数(NHI)与吐丝前氮素累积量、氮素转移量、吐丝后氮素累积量及籽粒产量呈正相关,达到了显著水平。从春玉米氮素累积、转移及与产量和氮肥偏生产力关系看,全膜双垄沟播种植技术的合理施氮量为200—230 kg N·hm~(-2)、密度为8.0×10~4株/hm~2,其产量可达13.7—14.6 t·hm~(-2),PFPN可达64.8—68.7 kg·kg~(-1)。【结论】地膜覆盖与适宜的施氮量和种植密度相结合的综合管理实践,有利于促进灌浆期营养器官储存氮向籽粒转移和吐丝后氮同化的协同增加,从而实现高产和高氮肥生产力。     

Yield gap and production constraints of mango (Mangifera indica) cropping systems in Tianyang County,China

Mango is an important cash crop in the tropics and subtropics. Determining the yield gap of mango and production constraints can potentially promote the sustainable development of the mango industry. In this study, boundary line analysis based on survey data from 103 smallholder farmers and a yield gap model were used to determine the yield gap and production constraints in mango plantations in the northern mountain, central valley and southern mountains regions of Tianyang County, Guangxi, China. The results indicated that the yield of mango in three representing regions of Tianyang County,Northern Mountains, Central Valley and Southern Mountains, was 18.3, 17.0 and 15.4 t ha~(–1) yr~(–1), with an explainable yield gap of 10.9, 6.1 and 14.8 t ha~(–1) yr~(–1), respectively. Fertilization management, including fertilizer N, P_2O_5 and K_2O application rates, and planting density were the main limiting factors of mango yield in all three regions. In addition, tree age influenced mango yield in the Northern Mountains(11.1%) and Central Valley(11.7%) regions. Irrigation time influenced mango yield in the Northern Mountains(9.9%) and Southern Mountains(12.2%). Based on a scenario analysis, the predicted yield would increase by up to 50%, and fertilizer N use would be reduced by as much as approximately 20%. An improved understanding of production constraints will aid in the development of management strategy measures to increase mango yield.     

Maize Yield Gains in Northeast China in the Last Six Decades

In 2010, Chinese maize yields increased from 961.5 kg ha^?1 in 1949 to 5 453.8 kg ha^?1. This increase is the result of genetic improvements, an increase in nitrogen application, and refinement of planting densities. The objective of this study was to provide a theoretical basis for maize production research by analyzing the maize yield gain characteristics. Six varieties of maize were selected for the study; each selection is representative of a typical or commonly used maize variety from a specific decade, beginning from the 1950s and continuing through each decade into the 2000s. The selections and their corresponding decade were as follows: Baihe, 1950s; Jidan 101, 1960s; Zhongdan 2, 1970s; Yedan 13, 1980s; Zhengdan 958, 1990s; and Xianyu 335, 2000s. Each variety was planted under four different densities (37 500, 52 500, 67 500, and 82 500 plants ha^?1) and four different nitrogen applications (0, 150, 225, and 300 kg ha^?1) to study the effects on yield gain characteristics. The obtained results demonstrated that there was a maize yield increase of 123.19% between the 1950s variety and the 2000s variety. Modern Chinese maize varieties had a higher yield advantage. They also displayed the additional potential to acquire higher yield under increased planting densities and nitrogen applications. At the present cultivation levels (planting at 67 500 plants ha^?1 with 225 kg ha^?1 nitrogen application), the contribution types and corresponding yield increase percentages were as follows: genetic improvement, 45.37%; agronomic-management improvement, 30.94%; and genotype× agronomic-management interaction, 23.69%. At high-yielding cultivation levels (planting at 82 500 plants ha^?1 with 300 kg ha^?1 nitrogen application), the contribution types and corresponding yield increase percentages were as follows: genetic improvement, 31.30%; agronomic-management improvement, 36.23%; and genotype × agronomic-management interaction, 32.47%. The contribution of agronomic-management and genotype × agronomic-management interaction to yield increase would be larger with the corresponding management improvement. To further increase maize grain yield in China, researchers should further examine the effects of agronomic-management on maize yield and the adaptation of variety to agronomic-management.     

有机肥氮替代化肥氮提高玉米产量和氮素吸收利用效率

【目的】有机肥替代部分化肥是实现中国化肥零增长的重要技术途径之一。利用在紫色土上8年定位试验研究有机肥氮连续替代化肥氮玉米生产力和氮素吸收利用效率的变化,为紫色土区合理利用有机养分资源和玉米施肥结构的调整提供科学依据。【方法】本试验为8年定位试验,试验施肥模式有5种:不施氮肥对照(CK)、农民常规施肥(FP)、化肥优化施用(OP)、在化肥优化的基础上有机肥(鸡粪)氮替代50%化肥氮(MF)、有机肥(鸡粪)氮替代100%化肥氮(OM)。试验研究了不同施肥处理下玉米产量、生物量和氮素吸收利用的变化。【结果】有机肥氮替代部分化肥氮能够显著增加玉米籽粒产量和生物量。相比常规施肥(FP)、有机肥氮替代100%化肥氮(OM)和化肥优化施用(OP),有机肥氮替代50%化肥氮处理(MF)的8年玉米籽粒平均增产率分别为13.7%、13.5%和12.5%,地上部生物量增产11.3%、7.0%和8.6%。与对照相比,各施肥模式均降低了玉米产量年度变异系数,提高了可持续指数和收获系数,其中有机肥氮替代50%化肥氮(MF)年度变异最小、可持续指数和收获指数最高。有机肥氮替代部分化肥氮促进了玉米对氮的吸收累积和向籽粒的转运。与化肥优化施(OP)和有机肥氮替代100%化肥氮(OM)处理相比,有机肥氮替代50%的化肥氮处理(MF)籽粒中氮素累积吸收量增加7.0%和29.6%,氮的总表观利用率提高2.5个百分点和26.5个百分点。有机肥氮替代50%化肥氮处理(MF)的氮肥偏生产力、氮收获指数和氮肥贡献率分别比OP提高6.2 kg·kg~(-1)、3.5个百分点和6.3个百分点,比OM提高6.6 kg·kg~(-1)、0.8个百分点和5.8个百分点。不同施肥处理每生产1 t玉米对氮素的需求量存在明显差异,化肥优化(OP)和有机肥氮替代50%的化肥氮(MF)处理生产1 t玉米籽粒对氮素的需求量(9.4 kg和10.8 kg)明显低于FP和OM处理(14.5 kg和12.9 kg),提高了氮素的生产效率。【结论】有机肥氮替代50%化肥氮显著提高了玉米经济产量和生物产量,提高了产量的稳定性和可持续性;促进了玉米对氮素的吸收和向籽粒的转运,提高了氮的利用效率。有机肥氮替代部分化肥氮是西南紫色土地区玉米增产稳产、氮肥增效的合理施肥方式。     

Effects of nitrogen fertilizer and chemical regulation on spring maize lodging characteristics,grain filling and yield formation under high planting density in Heilongjiang Province,China

Now,lodging is a major constraint factor contributing to yield loss of maize (Zea mays L.) under high planting density.Chemical regulation and nitrogen fertilizer could effectively coordinate the relationship between stem lodging and maize yield,which significantly reduce lodging and improve the grain yield.The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of chemical regulation and different nitrogen application rates on lodging characteristics,grain filling and yield of maize under high density.For this,we established a field study during 2017 and 2018 growing seasons,with three nitrogen levels of N100 (100 kg ha~(–1)),N200 (200 kg ha~(–1)) and N300 (300 kg ha~(–1)) at high planting density (90 000 plants ha~(–1)),and applied plant growth regulator (Yuhuangjin,the mixture of 3% DTA-6 and 27% ethephon) at the 7th leaf.The results showed that chemical control increased the activities of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL),tyrosine ammonia-lyase (TAL),4-coumarate:Co A ligase (4CL),and cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD),and increased the lignin,cellulose and hemicellulose contents at the bottom of the 3rd internode,which significantly reduced the lodging percentage.The lignin-related enzyme activities,lignin,cellulose and hemicellulose contents decreased with the increase of nitrogen fertilizer,which significantly increased the lodging percentage.The 200 kg ha~(–1) nitrogen application and chemical control increased the number,diameter,angle,volume,and dry weight of brace roots.The 200 kg ha~(–1) nitrogen application and chemical control significantly increased the activities of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase),soluble starch synthase (SSS) and starch branching enzyme(SBE),which promoted the starch accumulation in grains.Additional,improved the maximum grain filling rate (V_(max)) and mean grain filling rate (V_m),which promoted the grain filling process,significantly increased grain weight and grain number per ear,thus increased the final yield.     

长期增施有机肥/秸秆还田对土壤氮素淋失风险的影响

【目的】研究长期增施有机肥/秸秆还田对作物产量及土壤氮素淋失风险的影响,旨在为华北平原冬小麦-夏玉米轮作区增强土壤肥力、提高作物产量及降低农业面源污染风险提供依据。【方法】以国家褐潮土肥力与肥料效益监测基地的长期肥料试验为平台,研究长达27年不同施肥处理对冬小麦-夏玉米产量、土壤肥力、氮素淋失风险和土壤氮素剖面分布的影响,试验共设置5个施肥处理,即：对照（CK）;氮磷钾（NPK）;氮磷钾+有机肥（NPKM）;氮磷钾+过量有机肥（NPKM+）;氮磷钾+秸秆还田（NPKS）。【结果】（1）在27年的不同施肥处理中,长期增施有机肥/秸秆还田均能使作物增产,改善土壤肥力。其中,增施有机肥处理尤为显著,与NPK相比,NPKM、NPKM+处理提高小麦和玉米产量分别为41%-50%和30%-32%;增加0-20 cm表层土壤有机碳（SOC）和全氮（TN）含量分别为62%-121%、107%-187%;但降低小麦、玉米氮肥偏生产力（PFP_N）分别达22%-32%、27%-41%。而NPKS处理对作物增产及提升土壤肥力的作用低于增施有机肥处理,对小麦产量、玉米产量、SOC、TN含量的增幅分别为24%、6%、9%、97%,但提高小麦季PFP_N为216%、降低玉米季PFP_N为40%。（2）长期增施有机肥/秸秆还田处理中,0-20 cm表层土壤SOC、TN、硝态氮（NO₃^--N）、可溶性碳氮等养分含量以及氮矿化速率、硝化潜势等微生物学过程显著高于20-200 cm,说明长期增施有机肥/秸秆还田等外源碳的添加对土壤养分及微生物学过程的影响主要发生在表层。（3）与NPK相比,NPKM处理能够显著增加100-200 cm深层土壤中NO₃^--N含量,NO₃^--N平均含量为17.8-26.1 mg·kg^-1;而NPKS处理在一定程度上能够增加0-100 cm土层NO₃^--N含量,NO₃^--N平均含量为3.6-13.4 mg·kg^-1,表明增施有机肥会促进土壤NO₃^--N的向下迁移,而秸秆还田对土壤NO₃^--N具有一定的固持作用。此外,由于有机肥和秸秆带入的氮素, NPKM、NPKM+、NPKS处理氮盈余比NPK处理增加312%、1 037%、953%,大大增加了土壤氮素淋失风险。【结论】在氮磷钾化肥基础上增施有机肥/秸秆还田会提高作物产量、增强土壤肥力,但会提高土壤氮盈余量,提高氮素淋失风险,尤其是增施有机肥会大大增加氮素淋失风险。     

Nitrogen Nutrition Index and Its Relationship with N Use Efficiency,Tuber Yield,Radiation Use Efficiency,and Leaf Parameters in Potatoes

Knowledge about crop growth processes in relation to N limitation is necessary to optimize N management in farming system. Plant-based diagnostic method, for instance nitrogen nutrition index (NNI) were used to determine the crop nitrogen status. This study determines the relationship of NNI with agronomic nitrogen use efficiency (AE_N), tuber yield, radiation use efficiency (RUE) and leaf parameters including leaf area index (LAI), areal leaf N content (N_AL) and leaf N concentration (N_L). Potatoes were grown in field at three N levels: no N (N1), 150 kg N ha⁻¹ (N2), 300 kg N ha⁻¹ (N3). N deficiency was quantified by NNI and RUE was generally calculated by estimating of the light absorbance on leaf area. NNI was used to evaluate the N effect on tuber yield, RUE, LAI, N_AL, and N_L. The results showed that NNI was negatively correlated with AE_N, N deficiencies (NNI<1) which occurred for N1 and N2 significantly reduced LAI, N_L and tuber yield; whereas the N deficiencies had a relative small effect on N_AL and RUE. To remove any effect other than N on these parameters, the actual ratio to maximum values were calculated for each developmental stage of potatoes. When the NNI ranged from 0.4 to 1, positive linear relationships were obtained between NNI and tuber yield, LAI, N_L, while a nonlinear regression fitted the response of RUE to NNI.     

基于生命周期评估的冬小麦-夏玉米种植系统碳足迹核算——以山东省高密地区为例

粮食生产过程中的原材料生产、能源消耗、氮肥施用以及农机作业等过程均会排放大量的温室气体。本研究通过对山东省高密市冬小麦-夏玉米种植系统粮食种植过程的原材料投入和农业管理措施等进行问卷调查,采用生命周期评估（Life cycle assessment, LCA）方法学核算当地小麦和玉米生产过程的碳足迹（Carbon footprint, CFP）。结果表明,高密市小麦、玉米生产和冬小麦-夏玉米种植系统单位面积的碳足迹分别为5 183.33、3 778.09 kg CO₂-eq·hm^-2和8 961.42 kg CO₂-eq·hm^-2,单位产量的碳足迹分别为0.69、0.40 kg CO₂-eq·kg^-1和0.53 kg CO₂-eq·kg^-1,单位净现值的碳足迹分别为1.82、0.40 kg CO₂-eq·元^-1和0.44 kg CO₂-eq·元^-1。冬小麦-夏玉米种植系统粮食生产的碳足迹主要来自氮肥的生产（48.30%）和氮肥施用（12.04%）、灌溉耗电（12.94%）和农业机械耗油（11.20%）等方面。综上可知,优化肥料施用、减少氮肥用量和节水灌溉等措施是实现当地粮食清洁生产的重要途径。     

华南四省区木薯施用氮磷钾肥效果分析

为解析华南四省区木薯施用氮磷钾肥效果,指导木薯合理施肥,总结分析2005—2015年华南四省区44组木薯肥料试验数据,计算推荐施肥条件下,氮(N)、磷(P_2O_5)、钾(K_2O)肥的增产量、增产率、肥料产量贡献率、偏生产力。得出木薯施用氮肥的增产量、增产率、产量贡献率、偏生产力均值分别为8.5t/hm~2、39.4%、24.4%、203.5kg/kg,97.7%的试验有增产效果;磷肥的对应指标均值分别为5.5t/hm~2、20.8%、13.6%、639.2kg/kg,93.2%的试验有增产效果;钾肥的对应指标均值分别为5.5t/hm~2、21.9%、16.8%、209.1kg/kg,95.5%的试验有增产效果;氮、磷、钾肥的增产效果YIE表现为YIENYIEKYIEP,偏生产力PFP为PFPPPFPKPFPN。在现有推荐施肥技术水平下,氮、磷、钾肥的平均推荐配比为W(N)∶W(P_2O)_5∶W(K_2O)=2.9∶1∶3,最高推荐施用量分别为257.4、90.0、271.4kg/hm~2。针对现存问题,提出各地区需遵循"大配方,小调整"的施肥原则,并构建木薯推荐施肥网络体系,以促进木薯高产高效施肥。     

Suitability of the DNDC model to simulate yield production and nitrogen uptake for maize and soybean intercropping in the North China Plain

Intercropping is an important agronomic practice. However, assessment of intercropping systems using field experiments is often limited by time and cost. In this study, the suitability of using the DeNitrification DeComposition(DNDC) model to simulate intercropping of maize(Zea mays L.) and soybean(Glycine max L.) and its aftereffect on the succeeding wheat(Triticum aestivum L.) crop was tested in the North China Plain. First, the model was calibrated and corroborated to simulate crop yield and nitrogen(N) uptake based on a field experiment with a typical double cropping system. With a wheat crop in winter, the experiment included five treatments in summer: maize monoculture, soybean monoculture, intercropping of maize and soybean with no N topdressing to maize(N0), intercropping of maize and soybean with 75 kg N ha~(–1) topdressing to maize(N75), and intercropping of maize and soybean with 180 kg N ha~(–1) topdressing to maize(N180). All treatments had 45 kg N ha~(–1) as basal fertilizer. After calibration and corroboration, DNDC was used to simulate long-term(1955 to 2012) treatment effects on yield. Results showed that DNDC could stringently capture the yield and N uptake of the intercropping system under all N management scenarios, though it tended to underestimate wheat yield and N uptake under N0 and N75. Long-term simulation results showed that N75 led to the highest maize and soybean yields per unit planting area among all treatments, increasing maize yield by 59% and soybean yield by 24%, resulting in a land utilization rate 42% higher than monoculture. The results suggest a high potential to promote soybean production by intercropping soybean with maize in the North China Plain, which will help to meet the large national demand for soybean.     

Post-silking nitrogen accumulation and remobilization are associated with green leaf persistence and plant density in maize

Stay green(SG) maize was found to have higher grain yield and post-silking nitrogen(N) uptake(PostN) compared with a non-stay green(NSG) hybrid. To understand the effects of plant density on grain yield(GY) and N efficiency in modern maize hybrids, we compared two modern hybrids(SG hybrid DY508 and NSG hybrid NH101) with similar maturity ratings at three plant densities(45 000, 60 000, and 75 000 pl ha~(–1)) in 2014 and 2015. GY, leaf senescence, dry matter(DM) accumulation,N accumulation, PostN, and post-silking N remobilization(RemN) were analyzed. DY508 and NH101 had similar GY, but DY508 had higher thousand kernel weight(TKW) and lower kernel number(KN) than NH101. Plant density significantly increased GY in the two hybrids. On average, over the two years, plant density improved GY in DY508 and NH101 by 18.5 and 11.1%, respectively, but there were no differences in total dry matter(TDM) and post-silking DM(PostDM) between the two hybrids. Plant density improved leaf N, stem N, and grain N at the silking and maturity stages in 2014 and 2015. DY508 was lower in harvest index(HI), nitrogen harvest index(NHI), and grain N concentration(GNC) than NH101. Grain N in DY508 was 2.61 kg ha~(–1) less than in NH101, and this was caused by lower GNC and leaf RemN. On the average, DY508 was 1.62 kg ha~(–1) less in leaf remobilized N(leaf RemN) than NH101, but was similar in stem remobilized N(stem RemN;2.47 kg ha~(–1) vs. 3.41 kg ha~(–1)). Maize hybrid DY508 shows delayed leaf senescence in the upper and bottom canopy layers in the later stages of growth. The present study provides evidence that the NH101, which has rapid leaf senescence at the late grain-filling stage, has gained equivalent GY and higher leaf RemN, and was more efficient in N utilization.     

Integrated agronomic practices management improved grain formation and regulated endogenous hormone balance in summer maize(Zea mays L.)

Compared with single agronomic practices management during grain formation, knowledge about integrated agronomic practices management on grain-filling characteristics and physiological function of endogenous hormones was limited. In order to clarify this issue, two field experiments, integrated agronomic practices management(IAPM), T1(local conventional cultivation practices), T2(an optimized combination of cropping systems and fertilizer treatment), T3(treatment based on high-yield studies), and T4(further optimized combination of cropping systems and fertilizer treatment), and nitrogen rate testing(NAT)(four nitrogen rates, 0, 129.0, 184.5, and 300.0 kg N ha–1) were performed with summer maize hybrid Zhengdan 958(ZD958). Results showed that with increased nitrogen rate, the endogenous hormone balance was promoted and the grain-filling characteristics were improved sufficiently to resulting in a significant increase in grain yield. However, the grain-filling characteristics deteriorated and yield was reduced with excessive nitrogen fertilization. However, IAPM could promote hormone balance and improve grain filling characteristic. The indole-3-acetic acid(IAA), zeatin riboside(ZR), and gibberellin(GA3) contents under T2 and T4 treatments were higher and the abscisic acid(ABA) content was lower, and the ZR and GA3 contents under T3 were higher than those under T1. Those resulted in the maximum grain-filling rate(Wmax) and the active grain-filling period(P) under T2, T3 and T4 were significantly increased than those under T1, and hence promoted kernel weight and grain yield. So IAPM promoted hormone balance by improving tillage model, optimizing fertilizer rate and fertilization period, appropriately increasing planting density and delaying harvest, which promoted grain filling rate and lengthened active grain-filling period, finally increased grain yield.     

Cultivar selection can increase yield potential and resource use efficiency of spring maize to adapt to climate change in Northeast China

Northeast China (NEC) is one of the major maize production areas in China.Agro-climatic resources have obviously changed,which will seriously affect crop growth and development in this region.It is important to investigate the contribution of climate change adaptation measures to the yield and resource use efficiency to improve our understanding of how we can effectively ensure high yield and high efficiency in the future.In this study,we divided the study area into five accumulated temperature zones (ATZs) based on growing degree days (GDD).Based on the meteorological data,maize data (from agrometeorological stations) and the validated APSIM-Maize Model,we first investigated the spatial distributions and temporal trends of maize potential yield of actual planted cultivars,and revealed the radiation use efficiency (RUE) and heat resource use efficiency (HUE) from 1981 to 2017.Then according to the potential growing seasons and actual growing seasons,we identified the utilization percentages of radiation (P_R) resource and heat resource (P_H) for each ATZ under potential production from 1981 to 2017.Finally,we quantified the contributions of cultivar changings to yield,P_R and P_H of maize.The results showed that during the past 37 years,the estimated mean potential yield of actual planted cultivars was 13 649 kg ha~(–1),ranged from 11 205 to 15 257 kg ha~(–1),and increased by 140 kg ha~(–1) per decade.For potential production,the mean values of RUE and HUE for the actual planted maize cultivars were 1.22 g MJ~(–1) and 8.58 kg (℃ d)~(–1) ha~(–1).RUE showed an increasing tendency,while HUE showed a decreasing tendency.The lengths of the potential growing season and actual growing season were 158 and 123 d,and increased by 2 and 1 d per decade.P_R and P_H under potential production were 82 and 86%,respectively and showed a decreasing tendency during the past 37 years.This indicates that actual planted cultivars failed to make full use of climate resources.However,results from the adaptation assessments indicate that,adoption of cultivars with growing season increased by 2–11 d among ATZs caused increase in yield,P_R and P_H of 0.6–1.7%,1.1–7.6% and 1.5–8.9%,respectively.Therefore,introduction of cultivars with longer growing season can effectively increase the radiation and heat utilization percentages and potential yield.     

Differences of yield and nitrogen use efficiency under different applications of slow release fertilizer in spring maize

Excessive or insufficient application of fertilizer has raised broader concerns regarding soil and environmental degradation. One-time application of slow release fertilizer (SF) has been widely used to reduce yield gap with potential maize yield and improve nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). A 2-year field experiment (2018–2019) was conducted to evaluate the effects of SF rates from 0 to 405 kg N ha^–1 (named F0, SF225, SF270, SF315, SF360, and SF405) and 405 kg N ha^–1 of common fertilizer (CF405) on the grain yield, biomass and N accumulation, enzymatic activities related with carbon–nitrogen metabolism, NUE and economic analysis. Results indicated that the highest grain yields, NUEs and economic returns were achieved at SF360 in both varieties. The enzymatic activities related with carbon–nitrogen metabolism, pre- and post-silking accumulation of biomass and N increased with increasing SF rate, and they were the highest at SF360 and SF405. The grain yield at SF360 had no significant difference with that at SF405. However, the N partial factor productivity, N agronomic efficiency and N recovery efficiency at SF360 were 9.8, 6.6 and 8.9% higher than that at SF405. The results also indicated that the average grain yields, NUE and economic benefit at SF405 were 5.2, 12.3 and 18.1% higher than that at CF405. In conclusion, decreasing N rate from 405 kg ha^–1 (CF) to 360 kg ha^–1 (SF) could effectively reduce the yield gap between realized and potential maize yields. The N decreased by 11.1%, but the yield, NUE and economic benefit increased by 3.2, 22.2 and 17.5%, which created a simple, efficient and business-friendly system for spring maize production in Jiangsu Province, China.     

Utilizing comprehensive decision analysis methods to determine an optimal planting pattern and nitrogen application for winter oilseed rape

Oilseed rape is one of the most important oil crops globally. Attaining the appropriate cultivation method(planting pattern and nitrogen level) is necessary to achieve high yield, quality and resource utilization efficiency. However, the optimal method for oilseed rape varies across countries and regions. The objective of the present study was to determine an appropriate cultivation method, including planting pattern and nitrogen application, for winter oilseed rape in northwestern China. Two planting patterns: ridge film mulching and furrow planting(RFMF) and flat planting(FP), and six nitrogen(N) amounts: 0(N0), 60(N60), 120(N120), 180(N180), 240(N240), and 300(N300) kg N ha–1 were applied across three growing seasons(2014–2017). Three comprehensive decision analysis methods: principal component analysis, grey correlation degree analysis and the combined entropy weight and dynamic technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution method were used to evaluate the growth and physiological indicators, nutrient uptake, yield, quality, evapotranspiration, and water use efficiency of winter oilseed rape. Planting pattern, nitrogen amount and their interaction significantly affected the indicators aforementioned. The RFMF pattern significantly increased all indicators over the FP pattern. Application of N also markedly increased all the indicators except for seed oil content, but the yield, oil production and water use efficiency were decreased when N fertilizer exceeded 180 kg N ha–1 under FP and 240 kg N ha–1 under RFFM. The evaluation results of the three comprehensive decision analysis methods indicated that RFMF planting pattern with 240 kg N ha–1 is an appropriate cultivation method for winter oilseed rape in northwestern China. These findings are of vital significance to maximize yield, optimize quality and improve resource use efficiencies of winter oilseed rape.