Medication-related Clinical Decision Support in Computerized Provider Order Entry Systems: A Review

While medications can improve patients’ health, the process of prescribing them is complex and error prone, and medication errors cause many preventable injuries. Computer provider order entry (CPOE) with clinical decision support (CDS), can improve patient safety and lower medication-related costs.To realize the medication-related benefits of CDS within CPOE, one must overcome significant challenges. Healthcare organizations implementing CPOE must understand what classes of CDS their CPOE systems can support, assure that clinical knowledge underlying their CDS systems is reasonable, and appropriately represent electronic patient data. These issues often influence to what extent an institution will succeed with its CPOE implementation and achieve its desired goals.Medication-related decision support is probably best introduced into healthcare organizations in two stages, basic and advanced. Basic decision support includes drug-allergy checking, basic dosing guidance, formulary decision support, duplicate therapy checking, and drug–drug interaction checking. Advanced decision support includes dosing support for renal insufficiency and geriatric patients, guidance for medication-related laboratory testing, drug-pregnancy checking, and drug–disease contraindication checking. In this paper, the authors outline some of the challenges associated with both basic and advanced decision support and discuss how those challenges might be addressed. The authors conclude with summary recommendations for delivering effective medication-related clinical decision support addressed to healthcare organizations, application and knowledge base vendors, policy makers, and researchers.     

Types of Unintended Consequences Related to Computerized Provider Order Entry

ObjectiveTo identify types of clinical unintended adverse consequences resulting from computerized provider order entry (CPOE) implementation.DesignAn expert panel provided initial examples of adverse unintended consequences of CPOE. The authors, using qualitative methods, gathered and analyzed additional examples from five successful CPOE sites.MethodsUsing a card sort method, the authors developed a categorization scheme for the 79 unintended consequences initially identified and then iteratively modified the scheme to categorize 245 additional adverse consequences resulting from fieldwork. Because the focus centered on consequences requiring prevention or remedial action, the authors did not further analyze reported unintended beneficial (positive) consequences.ResultsUnintended adverse consequences (UACs) fell into nine major categories (in order of decreasing frequency): 1) more/new work for clinicians; 2) unfavorable workflow issues; 3) never ending system demands; 4) problems related to paper persistence; 5) untoward changes in communication patterns and practices; 6) negative emotions; 7) generation of new kinds of errors; 8) unexpected changes in the power structure; and 9) overdependence on the technology. Clinical decision support features introduced many of these unintended consequences.ConclusionIdentifying and understanding the types and in some instances the causes of unintended adverse consequences associated with CPOE will enable system developers and implementers to better manage implementation and maintenance of future CPOE projects.     

推进医生电子医嘱 优化临床工作流程

电子医嘱应用对提升医疗质量、防止医疗差错有重要作用。电子医嘱系统的开发与实施使医院临床医疗的操作以及医护沟通出现了新的问题，因此，正确的实施策略和流程分析重组是推进临床电子医嘱的基础。在我院临床病区电子医嘱应用推进的基础上，总结了医院临床流程重组优化的原则和方法，分析了医院临床流程优化对提升医疗质量管理的推进作用，指出临床流程优化对临床电子医嘱应用效果有关键性影响。     

The Impact of Computerized Provider Order Entry Systems on Inpatient Clinical Workflow: A Literature Review

Previous studies have shown the importance of workflow issues in the implementation of CPOE systems and patient safety practices. To understand the impact of CPOE on clinical workflow, we developed a conceptual framework and conducted a literature search for CPOE evaluations between 1990 and June 2007. Fifty-one publications were identified that disclosed mixed effects of CPOE systems. Among the frequently reported workflow advantages were the legible orders, remote accessibility of the systems, and the shorter order turnaround times. Among the frequently reported disadvantages were the time-consuming and problematic user-system interactions, and the enforcement of a predefined relationship between clinical tasks and between providers. Regarding the diversity of findings in the literature, we conclude that more multi-method research is needed to explore CPOE's multidimensional and collective impact on especially collaborative workflow.     

The Extent and Importance of Unintended Consequences Related to Computerized Provider Order Entry

Background

Computerized provider order entry (CPOE) systems can help hospitals improve health care quality, but they can also introduce new problems. The extent to which hospitals experience unintended consequences of CPOE, which include more than errors, has not been quantified in prior research.

Objective

To discover the extent and importance of unintended adverse consequences related to CPOE implementation in U.S. hospitals.

Design, Setting, and Participants

Building on a prior qualitative study involving fieldwork at five hospitals, we developed and then administered a telephone survey concerning the extent and importance of CPOE-related unintended adverse consequences to representatives from 176 hospitals in the U.S. that have CPOE.

Measurements

Self report by key informants of the extent and level of importance to the overall function of the hospital of eight types of unintended adverse consequences experienced by sites with inpatient CPOE.

Results

We found that hospitals experienced all eight types of unintended adverse consequences, although respondents identified several they considered more important than others. Those related to new work/more work, workflow, system demands, communication, emotions, and dependence on the technology were ranked as most severe, with at least 72% of respondents ranking them as moderately to very important. Hospital representatives are less sure about shifts in the power structure and CPOE as a new source of errors. There is no relation between kinds of unintended consequences and number of years CPOE has been used. Despite the relatively short length of time most hospitals have had CPOE (median five years), it is highly infused, or embedded, within work practice at most of these sites.

Conclusions

The unintended consequences of CPOE are widespread and important to those knowledgeable about CPOE in hospitals. They can be positive, negative, or both, depending on one’s perspective, and they continue to exist over the duration of use. Aggressive detection and management of adverse unintended consequences is vital for CPOE success.     

Evaluation of Outpatient Computerized Physician Medication Order Entry Systems: A Systematic Review

This paper provides a systematic literature review of CPOE evaluation studies in the outpatient setting on: safety; cost and efficiency; adherence to guideline; alerts; time; and satisfaction, usage, and usability. Thirty articles with original data (randomized clinical trial, non-randomized clinical trial, or observational study designs) met the inclusion criteria. Only four studies assessed the effect of CPOE on safety. The effect was not significant on the number of adverse drug events. Only one study showed a significant reduction of the number of medication errors. Three studies showed significant reductions in medication costs; five other studies could not support this. Most studies on adherence to guidelines showed a significant positive effect. The relatively small number of evaluation studies published to date do not provide adequate evidence that CPOE systems enhance safety and reduce cost in the outpatient settings. There is however evidence for (a) increasing adherence to guidelines, (b) increasing total prescribing time, and (c) high frequency of ignored alerts.     

Viewpoint: Controversies Surrounding Use of Order Sets for Clinical Decision Support in Computerized Provider Order Entry

Order sets provide straightforward clinical decision support within computerized provider order entry systems. They make “the right thing” easier to do because they are much faster than writing single orders; they deliver real-time, evidence-based prompts; they are easy to update; and they support coverage of multiple patient problems through linkages among order sets. This viewpoint paper discusses controversies surrounding use of order sets—advantages and pitfalls, decision-making criteria, and organizational considerations, including suggestions for vendors. Order sets have the potential to improve clinician efficiency, provide real-time guidance, facilitate compliance with Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations and Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services performance measure sets, and encourage overall acceptance of computerized provider order entry, but may not do so unless these controversies are addressed.     

计算机医嘱输入系统对用药错误的助长作用

背景：医院的计算机医嘱输入（computerized physician order entry，CPOE）系统被广泛认为能从技术上解决用药错误，后者是最常见的可以预防的医院诊疗错误的来源。已发表的研究表明，CPOE可减少高达81％的用药错误。然而，很少研究关注CPOE助长用药错误作用的范围或类型。     

A Cognitive Task Analysis of Information Management Strategies in a Computerized Provider Order Entry Environment

Objective

Computerized Provider Order Entry (CPOE) with electronic documentation, and computerized decision support dramatically changes the information environment of the practicing clinician. Prior work patterns based on paper, verbal exchange, and manual methods are replaced with automated, computerized, and potentially less flexible systems. The objective of this study is to explore the information management strategies that clinicians use in the process of adapting to a CPOE system using cognitive task analysis techniques.

Design

Observation and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 88 primary-care clinicians at 10 Veterans Administration Medical Centers.

Measurements

Interviews were taped, transcribed, and extensively analyzed to identify key information management goals, strategies, and tasks. Tasks were aggregated into groups, common components across tasks were clarified, and underlying goals and strategies identified.

Results

Nearly half of the identified tasks were not fully supported by the available technology. Six core components of tasks were identified. Four meta-cognitive information management goals emerged: 1) Relevance Screening; 2) Ensuring Accuracy; 3) Minimizing memory load; and 4) Negotiating Responsibility. Strategies used to support these goals are presented.

Conclusion

Users develop a wide array of information management strategies that allow them to successfully adapt to new technology. Supporting the ability of users to develop adaptive strategies to support meta-cognitive goals is a key component of a successful system.     

Does Computerized Provider Order Entry Reduce Prescribing Errors for Hospital Inpatients? A Systematic Review

Previous reviews have examined evidence of the impact of CPOE on medication errors, but have used highly variable definitions of “error”. We attempted to answer a very focused question, namely, what evidence exists that CPOE systems reduce prescribing errors among hospital inpatients? We identified 13 papers (reporting 12 studies) published between 1998 and 2007. Nine demonstrated a significant reduction in prescribing error rates for all or some drug types. Few studies examined changes in error severity, but minor errors were most often reported as decreasing. Several studies reported increases in the rate of duplicate orders and failures to discontinue drugs, often attributed to inappropriate selection from a dropdown menu or to an inability to view all active medication orders concurrently. The evidence-base reporting the effectiveness of CPOE to reduce prescribing errors is not compelling and is limited by modest study sample sizes and designs. Future studies should include larger samples including multiple sites, controlled study designs, and standardized error and severity reporting. The role of decision support in minimizing severe prescribing error rates also requires investigation.     

The Utility of Adding Retrospective Medication Profiling to Computerized Provider Order Entry in an Ambulatory Care Population

Background

We assessed whether medication safety improved when a medication profiling program was added to a computerized provider order entry system.

Design

Between June 2001 and January 2002 we profiled outpatients with potential prescribing errors using computerized retrospective drug utilization software. We focused primarily on drug interactions. Patients were randomly assigned either to Provider Feedback or to Usual Care. Subsequent adverse drug event (ADE) incidence and other outcomes, including ADE preventability and severity, occurring up to 1 year following the last profiling date were evaluated retrospectively by a pharmacist blinded to patient assignment.

Measurements

Data were abstracted using a study-designed instrument. An ADE was defined by an Adverse Drug Reaction Probability scale score of 1 or more. Statistical analyses included negative binomial regression for comparing ADE incidence.

Results

Of 913 patients in the analytic sample, 371 patients (41%) had one or more ADEs. Incidence, by individual, was not significantly different between Usual Care and Provider Feedback groups (37% vs. 45%; p = 0.06; Coefficient, 0.19; 95% CI: −0.008, 0.390). ADE severity was also similar. For example, 51% of ADEs in the Usual Care and 58% in the Provider Feedback groups involved symptoms that were not serious (95% CI for the difference, −15%, 2%). Finally, ADE preventability did not differ. For example, 16% in the Usual Care group and 17% in the Provider Feedback group had an associated warning (95% CI for the difference, −7 to 5%; p = 0.79).

Conclusion

Medications safety did not improve with the addition of a medication profiling program to an electronic prescribing system.     

Using Computerized Provider Order Entry and Clinical Decision Support to Improve Referring Physicians' Implementation of Consultants' Medical Recommendations

Objectives

Only half of consultants' medical recommendations are implemented. We created a tool that lets referring providers review and implement electronic recommendations made by consultants, with the hypothesis that facilitation with our tool could improve implementation.

Measurements

The tool was piloted among geriatrics consultants and hospitalists. Pre-post evaluation was done with control (before pilot; N = 20) and intervention (after pilot; N = 20) patients. Consultants wrote notes containing recommendations for all study patients, and entered electronic recommendations only for intervention patients. We analyzed all recommendations and surveyed hospitalists.

Results

A total of 249 recommendations were made for intervention patients versus 192 for controls (p < 0.05). Of all recommendations about intervention patients, 78% were implemented, compared to 59% for controls (p = 0.01). Of the intervention recommendations, 77% were entered electronically using our tool; of these, 86% were implemented. All 24 survey respondents indicated that the system improved quality, saved time, and should be expanded.

Conclusion

Consultant recommendations were implemented 30% more often when there was electronic facilitation of recommendations.     

Overriding of Drug Safety Alerts in Computerized Physician Order Entry

Many computerized physician order entry (CPOE) systems have integrated drug safety alerts. The authors reviewed the literature on physician response to drug safety alerts and interpreted the results using Reason's framework of accident causation. In total, 17 papers met the inclusion criteria. Drug safety alerts are overridden by clinicians in 49% to 96% of cases. Alert overriding may often be justified and adverse drug events due to overridden alerts are not always preventable. A distinction between appropriate and useful alerts should be made. The alerting system may contain error-producing conditions like low specificity, low sensitivity, unclear information content, unnecessary workflow disruptions, and unsafe and inefficient handling. These may result in active failures of the physician, like ignoring alerts, misinterpretation, and incorrect handling. Efforts to improve patient safety by increasing correct handling of drug safety alerts should focus on the error-producing conditions in software and organization. Studies on cognitive processes playing a role in overriding drug safety alerts are lacking.     

Return on Investment for a Computerized Physician Order Entry System

ObjectiveAlthough computerized physician order entry (CPOE) may decrease errors and improve quality, hospital adoption has been slow. The high costs and limited data on financial benefits of CPOE systems are a major barrier to adoption. The authors assessed the costs and financial benefits of the CPOE system at Brigham and Women's Hospital over ten years.DesignCost and benefit estimates of a hospital CPOE system at Brigham and Women's Hospital (BWH), a 720-adult bed, tertiary care, academic hospital in Boston.MeasurementsInstitutional experts provided data about the costs of the CPOE system. Benefits were determined from published studies of the BWH CPOE system, interviews with hospital experts, and relevant internal documents. Net overall savings to the institution and operating budget savings were determined. All data are presented as value figures represented in 2002 dollars.ResultsBetween 1993 and 2002, the BWH spent $11.8 million to develop, implement, and operate CPOE. Over ten years, the system saved BWH $28.5 million for cumulative net savings of $16.7 million and net operating budget savings of $9.5 million given the institutional 80% prospective reimbursement rate. The CPOE system elements that resulted in the greatest cumulative savings were renal dosing guidance, nursing time utilization, specific drug guidance, and adverse drug event prevention. The CPOE system at BWH has resulted in substantial savings, including operating budget savings, to the institution over ten years.ConclusionOther hospitals may be able to save money and improve patient safety by investing in CPOE systems.