对准误差对菲涅耳透镜衍射效率的影响

基于标量衍射理论,在傅立叶光学的基础上,首先得出存在对准误差情况下4台阶菲涅耳透镜衍射效率的解析式;并以4台阶、8台阶、16台阶菲涅耳透镜为例,系统分析对准误差对衍射效率的影响并进行计算机模拟研究.模拟计算结果对正在进行的16台阶菲涅耳透镜制作工作提供了理论指导.     

Annealing treatment of amorphous silicon generated by single point diamond turning

Mechanical material removal during ultraprecision machining of semiconductor crystals normally induces surface damage. In this article, Raman micro-spectroscopy has been used to probe structural alteration as well as residual stresses in the machined surface generated by single point diamond turning. The damage found is characterized by an amorphous phase in the outmost surface layer. In addition, the results of in-situ re-crystallization annealing of micromachined silicon monitored by micro-Raman spectroscopy are reported for the first time. It is also shown that the annealing heat treatment influenced surface roughness, whereby R_max was equal to 24.3 nm and 47.5 nm for the non-treated and annealed surfaces, respectively.     

An empirical survey on the influence of machining parameters on tool wear in diamond turning of large single-crystal silicon optics

We conducted a series of screening experiments to survey the influence of machining parameters on tool wear during ductile regime diamond turning of large single-crystal silicon optics. The machining parameters under investigation were depth-of-cut, feed rate, surface cutting speed, tool radius, tool rake angle and side rake angle, and cutting fluid. Using an experimental design technique, we selected twenty-two screening experiments. For each experiment we measured tool wear by tracing the tool edge with an air bearing linear variable differential transformer before and after cutting and recording the amount of tool edge recession. Using statistical tools, we determined the significance of each cutting parameter within the parameter space investigated. We found that track length, chip size, tool rake angle and surface cutting speed significantly affect tool wear, while cutting fluid and side rake angle do not significantly affect tool wear within the ranges tested. The track length, or machining distance, is the single most influential characteristic that causes tool wear. For a fixed part area, a decrease in track length corresponds to an increase in feed rate. Less tool wear occurred on experiments with negative rake angle tools, larger chip sizes and higher surface velocities. The next step in this research is to perform more experiments in this region to develop a predictive model that can be used to select cutting parameters that minimize tool wear.     

基于菲涅尔透镜的室内LED射灯配光设计

为了将LED发出的光均匀投射到3m远直径为1m的圆形区域内,设计了一种LED(发光二极管)射灯。采用菲涅尔透镜对射灯进行二次光学配光设计,并通过调整菲涅尔透镜的各个独立环带的倾角来优化投射光的分布。文中对菲涅尔透镜的投光效果、安全性和加工误差等方面进行了考察,结果表明设计是安全的、可靠的并具有良好的投光效果。     

Ultraprecision surface flattening of porous silicon by diamond turning

Porous silicon is receiving increasing interest from a wide range of scientific and technological fields due to its excellent material properties. In this study, we attempted ultraprecision surface flattening of porous silicon by diamond turning and investigated the fundamental material removal mechanism. Scanning electron microscopy and laser Raman spectroscopy of the machined surface showed that the mechanisms of material deformation and phase transformation around the pores were greatly different from those of bulk single-crystal silicon. The mechanism of cutting was strongly dependent on the direction of cutting with respect to pore edge orientation. Crack propagation was dominant near specific pore edges due to the release of hydrostatic pressure that was essential for ductile machining. Wax was used as an infiltrant to coat the workpiece before machining, and it was found that the wax not only prevented chips from entering the pores, but also contributed to suppress brittle fractures around the pores. The machined surface showed a nanometric surface flatness with open pores, demonstrating the possibility of fabricating high-precision porous silicon components by diamond turning.     

Investigation of the direction of chip motion in diamond turning

Management of the chips generated in diamond turning is often critical since contact between chips and the workpiece can result in superficial damage to the finished surface. Controlling chip motion is not a trivial process as the proper positioning of an oil or an air stream requires an understanding of the dynamics of a diamond turned chip and the machining parameters that affect it. Previous work [1] introduced the chip curvature parameter, χ, which is useful in predicting chip radius of curvature over a wide range of cutting speeds, depths of cut, tool geometries and workpiece material properties. To control chip motion, however, an understanding of the direction chips leave the tool/workpiece interface must also be obtained. Cutting experiments were performed investigating the influence of cutting speed, depth of cut, feed rate, tool path angle, tool geometry and tool orientation on the directional characteristics of the motion of diamond turned chips. Flow angle measurements obtained during cutting were found to remain within ± 10° of predictions from a simple geometrical model originally proposed for conventional machining.     

Modeling and machining evaluation of microstructure fabrication by fast tool servo-based diamond machining

A fast-tool servo-machining process is typically utilized to generate sinusoidal microstructures for optical components only when the clearance angle of the cutting tool is greater than the critical value. This paper focuses on the generation characteristics of microstructures for surface texturing applications when the clearance angle of the cutting tool is smaller than this critical angle. A method for calculating the microstructure profile amplitude and wavelength is introduced for the prediction of microstructure generation. Cutting tests were conducted, and the measured results were quite close to the corresponding calculated results, further verifying the capability of the proposed analytical model.     

数控车削圆锥滚子轴承内滚道时走刀点尺寸的确定

数控车床加工圆锥轴承轴承内滚道时需要根据车加工图纸,通过几何关系计算出走刀点坐标尺寸。手工计算费时费力,容易出现错误。CAD方法重复繁琐,效率低下。针对以上问题,将计算公式嵌入Excel电子表格中,通过输入相关数据即可得出计算结果,提高了效率,减少了废品。     

Measurement and compensation of error motions of a diamond turning machine

This paper describes the measurement and compensation of error motions of a diamond turning machine for nanofabrication of large sinusoidal metrology grids. The diamond turning machine has a T-base design, which consists of a spindle with its rotation axis along the Z-direction and a cross-slide with its movement direction along the X-direction. A fast-tool-servo (FTS) unit is mounted on the X-slide to generate sinusoidal microstructures on a flat workpiece surface mounted on the spindle. The error motions of the X-slide and the spindle, which introduce Z-directional profile errors (out-of-flatness) on the grid surface, are measured and compensated. The out-of-straightness of the X-slide is measured to be approximately 60 nm over a travel of 80 mm by using the reversal method. It is also confirmed that the out-of-straightness of the X-slide has a 10-nm periodic component with a period of 11 mm corresponding to the diameter of the needles used in the roller bearing of the X-slide. The angular motion of the spindle is measured to be approximately 0.3″ by using an autocollimator, which can cause a 73-nm out-of-flatness over a workpiece 100 mm in diameter. The axial motion of the spindle is measured to be approximately 5 nm, which is the smallest error motion. The out-of-flatness of the workpiece is reduced from 0.27 to 0.12 μm through compensating for the error motions by utilizing the FTS unit based on the measurement results of error motions.     

Surface profile measurement of a sinusoidal grid using an atomic force microscope on a diamond turning machine

This paper describes the surface profile measurement of a XY-grid workpiece with sinusoidal microstructures using an atomic force microscope (AFM) on a diamond turning machine. The sinusoidal micro-structures, which are fabricated on an aluminum plate by fast tool servo-assisted diamond turning, are a superposition of periodic sine-waves along the X- and Y-directions (wavelength (XY): 150 μm, amplitude (Z): 0.25 μm). A linear encoder with a resolution of 0.5 nm is integrated into the AFM-head for accurate measurement of the Z-directional profile height in the presence of noise associated with the diamond turning machine. The spindle and the X-slide of the machine are employed to spirally scan the AFM-head over the sinusoidal grid workpiece. Experiments fabricating and measuring the sinusoidal grid workpiece are carried out after accurate alignment of the AFM cantilever tip with the spindle centerline.     

Development of Wolter I x-ray optics by diamond turning and electrochemical replication

Demonstration x-ray optics have been produced by diamond turning and replication techniques that could revolutionize the fabrication of advanced mirror assemblies. The prototype optics were developed as part of the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility—Spectrographic program (AXAF-S). The initial part of the project was aimed at developing and testing the replication technique so that it could potentially be used for the production of the entire mirror array. This assembly will ultimately be comprised of up to 50 nested mirror shells. The mirrors are produced by electroforming a thin shell optic with a conical mandrel. The mandrel is diamond-turned electroless nickel over an aluminum substrate. The initial goal was to produce a surface finish on the replicated mirror shell of less than 10 Å rms (measured with a WYKO 3D at 20X). The electroformed mirror shell is made from pure nickel deposited in a state of minimum stress. A cryogenic separation technique is used to remove the finished mirror from the mandrel. The replication technology for the mirror components has the potential to revolutionize the fabrication of precision components. The extremely high precision required of x-ray optics may lead to advances in manufacturing techniques that could be utilized in the fabrication of other precision components. The key procedures of the fabrication process are presented with the appropriate testing results.     

基于仿形测量和误差补偿处理的模具逆工程曲面重构

阐述了逆工程的概念、组成及实施的关键技术 ,重点讨论了逆工程仿形测量技术、误差补偿处理、以及基于测量数据的曲面重构技术 ,包括测量数据预处理、曲线拟合及曲线的光顺处理、曲面的拟合以及结果的检测与评估。以变矩器叶轮叶片芯模具为实例 ,就逆工程技术在模具快速设计与制造方面的应用做了初步的探讨。     

特大型调心滚子硬车削工艺试验探究

以某型风电轴承用特大型调心滚子为试验对象,制定硬车削工艺流程,在高精密数控机床上进行硬车削工艺试验.通过对硬车削和传统磨削两种工艺加工产品检测数据进行对比分析,验证了特大型滚子采用硬车削工艺加工的优势和可行性.     

圆柱滚子轴承外圈挡边硬车工艺探讨

原有数控机床车削淬火的圆柱滚子轴承挡边时采用三爪夹盘夹持工件,使工件的尺寸及平行差难以达到工艺要求。针对以上问题,选择弹簧夹具代替三爪夹盘夹持工件,并对夹具与机床连接部分重新进行了改进设计,提高了夹具的定位精度、工件的尺寸精度及形状和位置精度。     

Finite element optimization of diamond tool geometry and cutting-process parameters based on surface residual stresses

In this paper, a coupled thermo-mechanical plane-strain large-deformation orthogonal cutting FE model is proposed on the basis of updated Lagrangian formulation to simulate diamond turning. In order to consider the effects of a diamond cutting tool’s edge radius, rezoning technology is integrated into this FE based model. The flow stress of the workpiece is modeled as a function of strain, strain rate, and temperature, so as to reflect its dynamic changes in physical properties. In this way, the influences of cutting-edge radius, rake angle, clearance angle, depth of cut, and cutting velocity on the residual stresses of machined surface are analyzed by FE simulation. The simulated results indicate that a rake angle of about 10° and a clearance angle of 6° are the optimal geometry for a diamond tool to machine ductile materials. Also, the smaller the cutting edge radius is, the less the residual stresses become. However, a great value can be selected for cutting velocity. For depth of cut, the ‘size effect’ will be dependent upon it. Residual stresses will be reduced with the decrement of depth of cut, but when the depth of cut is smaller than the critical depth of cut (i.e., about 0.5 μm according to this work) residual stresses will decrease accordingly.     

Effects of tool overhang on selection of machining parameters and surface finish during diamond turning

In precision machining leading to nano-metric surface finish, selection of the suitable machining parameters is a critical task. To ensure the desired surface quality, one needs to optimally select the machining parametric matrix. Towards this effort, this paper adds another critical parameter in terms of tool overhang. A well-defined set of machining exercises is carried out with different tool overhangs and machining parameters. In this investigation, an attempt has been made to locate the optimum range of tool overhang with minimum tool vibrations. The interaction between tool overhang with other parameters is also thoroughly investigated. Another important focus of this study is to find out the optimum machining parameters for the situations where it is not possible to select an optimum tool overhang. One such situation occurs when a steep concave parabolic surface needs to be fabricated. In this case a large tool overhang has to be selected. Power spectral density distribution analysis of surface roughness for different tool overhangs is performed to find out significant parameters and their degree of contribution to surface roughness. Analysis of variance is also applied to ascertain statistically significant factors contributing to surface roughness. To model the surface roughness, response surface methodology is being used. The model has been verified by conducting a series of experiments and a steep concave parabolic surface is developed by following the predictions of the developed model.     

Effect of material microstructure and tool geometry on surface generation in single point diamond turning

There is a strong desire in industry to improve surface finish when performing ultra-precision, single point diamond turning (SPDT) to reduce the amount of post process polishing required to meet final product specifications. However there are well known factors in SPDT which limit achievable surface finish. This paper focuses on the role of material microstructure, including grain boundary density and the presence of inclusions, as well as tool design on surface roughness using the concept of size effect. Size effect can be described as an interplay between the material microstructure dimension and the relative size of the uncut chip thickness with respect to the cutting edge radius. Since one of the controllable parameters in size effect is grain size and dislocation density, controlled studies were performed on samples whose microstructure was refined by mechanical strain hardening through rolling and a friction stir process (FSP). The use of the ultra-fine grained workpiece prepared using an FSP was observed to reduce side flow as well as grain boundary and inclusion induced roughness. The role of tool geometry on material induced roughness was investigated using a tool with a rounded primary cutting edge and a flat secondary edge. The use of the flat secondary edge was observed to improve surface finish when machining a flat surface. This improvement was primarily attributed to a reduction in side flow and material microstructural effects. By combining these approaches an average surface roughness R_a value of 0.685 nm was achieved when SPDT a flat surface. Furthermore the custom tool has the potential to significantly improve the productivity of SPDT by allowing for a much higher feed rate while still achieving a high quality surface finish.     

光学自由曲面计算机控制加工中的形面检测研究

光学自由曲面可以实现特殊的成像效果,给光学设计提供了更大的自由度,计算机控制加工方法可以在低精度设备上加工出高精度的光学自由曲面。自由曲面的形面检测是决定其最终加工精度的关键因素。本文讨论了自由曲面的形面检测方法,研究了自由曲面的坐标测量法,提出了快速自由曲面坐标测量法,并进行了验证。结果表明采用快速自由曲面测量法可以大大缩短测量时间,测量精度在测量机的精度范围内。     

基于共焦法的透镜厚度测量系统设计

研究通过分析共焦法检测透镜厚度的原理,并结合实际,给出了共焦光学系统的设计指标及要求,据此设计了一套共焦光学系统,结合光纤、耦合器、光谱仪等设备构成了基于共焦原理的透镜厚度测量系统。文中分析了本共焦光学系统的公差,分析结果表明,所给公差相对较宽松,整个光学系统设计合理,且在此公差下,本光学系统仍能清晰成像。本系统的测量范围至少为15 mm,可以有较广泛的应用。对于普通的K9玻璃,本检测系统的测量范围可达23.4 mm,测量精度为1μm。