A review of Canadian and international food safety systems: Issues and recommendations for the future

In January 2019, the Safe Food for Canadians Act/Safe Food for Canadians regulations (heretofore identified as SFCR) came into force across Canada and brought a more streamlined process to food safety practice in Canada. Food trade and production processes have evolved rapidly in recent decades, as Canada imports and exports food products; therefore it is critically important to remain aware of the latest advances responding to a range of challenges and opportunities in the food safety value chain. Looking through the optics of the recent SFCR framework, this paper places the spotlight on leading domestic and international research and practices to help strengthen food safety policies of the future. By shedding some light on new research, we also draw attention to international developments that are noteworthy, and place those in context as to how new Canadian food safety policy and regulation can be further advanced. The paper will benchmark Canada through a review study of food safety best practices by juxtaposing (i) stated aspirations with, (ii) actual performance in leading Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) jurisdictions.     

Salmonella in eggs: From shopping to consumption—A review providing an evidence-based analysis of risk factors

Nontyphoidal salmonellae are among the most prevalent foodborne pathogens causing gastrointestinal infections worldwide. A high number of cases and outbreaks of salmonellosis are associated with the consumption of eggs and egg products, and several of these occur at the household level. The aim of the current study is to critically evaluate the current status of knowledge on Salmonella in eggs from a consumer's perspective, analyzing the hazard occurrence and the good practices that should be applied to reduce salmonellosis risk. Following a HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) based approach, some steps along the food journey were identified as Critical Consumer Handling (CCH)—steps in which consumers, through their behavior or choice, can significantly reduce the level of Salmonella in eggs and egg products. From shopping/collecting to consumption, each of these steps is discussed in this review to provide an evidence-based overview of risk factors of human salmonellosis related to egg consumption. The main message to consumers is to choose Salmonella-free eggs (those that some official entity or producer guarantees that does not contain Salmonella), when available, especially for dishes that are not fully heat treated. Second, as guaranteed Salmonella-free eggs are only available in a few countries, refrigerated storage from the point of collection and proper cooking will significantly reduce the risk of salmonellosis. This will require a revision of the actual recommendations/regulations, as not all ensure that eggs are maintained at temperatures that prevent growth of Salmonella from collection until the time of purchasing.     

消费者搜寻食品安全信息行为关键因素的识别研究

在构建影响消费者搜寻食品安全信息行为的因素体系基础上,运用模糊集理论与实验决策案例分析方法,分析17个影响消费者搜寻食品安全信息行为因素的属性及其相互关系,并识别出其中消费者受教育程度、食品安全风险感知水平、对健康关注程度、对食品质量安全关注程度、产品知识、食品品牌和食品有无质量安全认证为关键影响因素。根据研究结论相应地提出食品生产企业需要进一步加强产品品牌建设和质量安全管理,进一步推进产品质量认证工作。     

消费者食品安全风险认知现状及影响因素

食品安全问题是公共卫生的重中之重,随着世界经济环境的不断发展,食品传播范围增大,食品安全在生产加工、储存、分销等方面都面临着巨大的压力和挑战。频繁发生的食品安全事件冲击着公众的信任,也影响消费者对食品安全风险的认知。对消费者风险认知的测量,逐渐由双因素风险认知理论模型转变为多因素模型。影响人们食品安全风险认知的因素有很多,比如人口特征属性,包括年龄、性别、种族和受教育程度等;接收食品信息的渠道,例如媒体、政府和企业;以及消费者对食品加工过程中涉及的技术和概念的了解程度等。这些因素对消费者的食品安全风险认知有不同程度的影响,对这些因素进行总结概述,能够为有关部门提供未来食品安全工作中可以采取的有效措施,且提升消费者对食品安全和质量的信心。     

Consumer food handling in the home: a review of food safety studies

Epidemiological data from Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand indicate that a substantial proportion of foodborne disease is attributable to improper food preparation practices in consumers' homes. International concern about consumer food safety has prompted considerable research to evaluate domestic food-handling practices. The majority of consumer food safety studies in the last decade have been conducted in the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland (48%) and in the United States (42%). Surveys (questionnaires and interviews), the most frequent means of data collection, were used in 75% of the reviewed studies. Focus groups and observational studies have also been used. One consumer food safety study examined the relationship between pathogenic microbial contamination from raw chicken and observed food-handling behaviors, and the results of this study indicated extensive Campylobacter cross-contamination during food preparation sessions. Limited information about consumers' attitudes and intentions with regard to safe food-handling behaviors has been obtained, although a substantial amount of information about consumer knowledge and self-reported practices is available. Observation studies suggest that substantial numbers of consumers frequently implement unsafe food-handling practices. Knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and self-reported practices did not correspond to observed behaviors, suggesting that observational studies provide a more realistic indication of the food hygiene actions actually used in domestic food preparation. An improvement in consumer food-handling behavior is likely to reduce the risk and incidence of foodborne disease. The need for the development and implementation of food safety education strategies to improve specific food safety behaviors is reviewed in this paper.     

加拿大食品检查员管理政策法规分析和借鉴

食品安全是关系国计民生的大事。安全的食品是生产出来的也是监管出来的。要做好食品安全工作,强化食品安全监管能力建设是关键。职业化检查员队伍是食品安全监管工作的基础和保障,可弥补监管人手不够、专业能力不足等问题。国外发达国家均高度重视食品检查员建设,拥有高素质、专业强的检查员队伍,而我国食品检查员队伍建设还在探索。加拿大作为全球食品安全体系最好的国家之一,具有完善的食品检查员管理政策法规体系,检查依据、资质管理与分类分级、教育培训、职责任务、检查程序、监管都有明确规定,这对于我国食品检查员队伍建设具有很大的借鉴意义。作者主要研究加拿大食品检查员的相关管理政策法规,结合我国当前实际,进而在具体工作层面提出完善我国食品检查员队伍建设的建议。     

Salmonella spp. in low water activity food: Occurrence,survival mechanisms,and thermoresistance

The occurrence of disease outbreaks involving low-water-activity (a_w) foods has gained increased prominence due in part to the fact that reducing free water in these foods is normally a measure that controls the growth and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms. Salmonella, one of the main bacteria involved in these outbreaks, represents a major public health problem worldwide and in Brazil, which highlights the importance of good manufacturing and handling practices for food quality. The virulence of this pathogen, associated with its high ability to persist in the environment, makes Salmonella one of the main challenges for the food industry. The objectives of this article are to present the general characteristics, virulence, thermoresistance, control, and relevance of Salmonella in foodborne diseases, and describe the so-called low-water-activity foods and the salmonellosis outbreaks involving them.     

Control of Salmonella Contamination of Shell Eggs—Preharvest and Postharvest Methods: A Review

Salmonella Enteritidis is one of the most prevalent foodborne pathogen, its main reservoir being considered the shell egg. As the concerns related to the increasing human salmonellosis cases grow, the need for an application of preventive methods either at the farm level or during the processing steps is crucial for a better control of the foodborne outbreaks due to the consumption of this specific food product. This review focuses on the application of preventive methods at the farm level, on preharvest step, in order to reduce the risk of shell eggs contamination with Salmonella, especially S. Enteritidis, through a better control of the laying hens’ infection with this pathogen. As postharvest methods, a 1st approach is the egg storage conditions and the prevention of Salmonella spp. growth and multiplication. In addition, shell eggs may be subjected to eggshell decontamination, to reduce the risk of foodborne outbreaks. Several of these latter mentioned methods are already authorized to be put in place in different countries, as it is the case in the United States of America and Canada. Their efficacy has been proven and their use is regarded by some as mandatory for ensuring shell eggs safety for the consumers.     

Prevalence of the main food-borne pathogens in retail food under the national food surveillance system in Japan

The National Food Surveillance System in Japan was formed in 1998 to monitor the contamination of retail foods with bacterial pathogens. Approximately 2000–3000 samples were tested annually, and the data from food categories that had more than 400 samples collected during 1998–2008 were analysed. With regard to meat, the frequency of positive samples for Salmonella in chicken for raw consumption and ground chicken was 12.7% and 33.5%, respectively. Moreover, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157 was found in ground meat, organ meat and processed meat, although at a low frequency (0.1%). The prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni/coli was 13.3% and 20.9% in chicken for raw consumption and ground chicken, respectively. In vegetables and fruit, Salmonella was detected in cucumber, lettuce, sprout and tomato samples at a frequency of around 0.1–0.2%. With regard to seafood, Salmonella was found in 0.5% of oysters for raw consumption. Seafood was not contaminated with STEC O157 or Shigella. Serotype Infantis was the most frequently detected serotype of Salmonella in seafood, followed by the serotypes Typhimurium, Schwarzengrund and Manhattan. In ground chicken, 72.2% of the strains were identified as the serotype Infantis. E. coli, as an indicator of food hygiene, was detected in all food categories. The results show the prevalence of the above-mentioned pathogens in the retail food supplied in Japan; further, they indicate that consumption of raw food carries the risk of contracting food-borne infections.     

Salmonella in the wildlife-human interface

Non-typhoidal salmonellosis is the most important bacterial foodborne infection causing disease cases in humans in industrialized countries. Food from food producing animals like eggs, chicken meat, pork or beef accounts for most cases of salmonellosis. Additionally, Salmonella resides in a variety of different hosts, including animals living in the wild, and there have been reports where the outbreak strains could be tracked down to wildlife. The focus of this review is to consider different pathways by which wildlife can be involved in human salmonellosis: 1. via contact with domestic animals as transmission or accumulation vectors 2. by direct contact with humans 3. through meat of wild animals and 4. by contamination of food or food producing units. Here, we outline different routes of Salmonella-italic transmission to humans via wildlife, and also discuss their host specificity, husbandry practices, reservoirs, survival and growth characteristics in food commodities in this context.     

Consumer confidence in the safety of food in Canada and the Netherlands: The validation of a generic framework

A thorough understanding of consumer confidence in the safety of food and the factors by which this is influenced is necessary for the development of adequate and effective risk management and communication regarding food safety issues. As food chains become globalized, risk management and communication are increasingly applied at international levels. As a consequence, cross-culturally valid theoretical models are needed to investigate consumer confidence in the safety of food. In this study, consumer confidence in the safety of food in Canada and the Netherlands was systematically compared. On the basis of two nationally representative samples, it was examined to what extent differences in consumer confidence between the two countries resulted from differences in the relative importance of the determinants of confidence, and differences in the means of the constructs. No differences between Canada and the Netherlands were found regarding the relative importance of the determinants, which provides support for the generalizability of the framework. However, results indicated that Dutch consumers had a higher level of optimism and a lower level of pessimism regarding the safety of food, which appeared to be mainly related to Dutch consumers’ lower level of concern about factors related to production. The results also indicated cross-national differences in consumer recall of food safety issues in the media.     

Food control systems in Canada

This paper provides an overview of the responsibilities and jurisdictional boundaries of Health Canada (HC) and Agriculture and Agri‐Food Canada (AAFC) with regard to food regulation in Canada. It examines their interagency coordination within the federal structure and with other levels of government, industry, and the consumer. The international developments are considered with the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Canada, United States Trade Agreement (CUSTA) being regarded as likely to have a significant future impact.

The federal food safety and quality system is complex and fragmented. Federal food regulation comes under the jurisdiction of four federal departments: HC, AAFC, Industry Canada (IC), and Fisheries and Oceans Canada (FOC). All four departments are involved with inspection, surveillance, and the analysis of food sold in Canada. In addition, Canada's ten provincial and two territorial governments have provincial‐, regional‐, municipal‐, and local‐level governments that also have jurisdiction over food safety and quality.

Consideration is first given to the main legislative provision covering food — the Federal Food and Drugs Act. This Act is administered by several of the Federal Government departments. The role of these departments is examined individually along with additional, more specific legal provisions for which responsibility is not divided (in particular, the Canada Agricultural Products [CAP] Act administered by AAFC, and the Consumer Packaging and Labeling Act [CPLA] administered by IC). The various reviews that have taken place in the recent past and those still in progress are considered, and the final part of this paper looks at the international developments that are likely to have a major impact on the future development of the Canadian food control system.     

European perspectives of food safety

Food safety has been a growing concern among European Union (EU) citizens over the last decades. Despite the fact that food has never been safer, consumers are considerably uncertain and increasingly critical about the safety of their food. The introduction of new principles, such as the primary responsibility of producers, traceability, risk analysis, the separation of risk assessment and risk management provided a more transparent, science‐based system in Europe, which can help to restore consumers' lost confidence. The present EU integrated approach to food safety ‘from farm to fork’ aims to assure a high level of food safety within the EU. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry     

加拿大食品安全协同治理建设举措及启示

剖析了加拿大食品安全协同治理的驱动因素和建设举措,发现其在建立政府内部协作机制、注重发挥行业协会自治能力和加强国际合作伙伴关系方面有着较为完善的举措,有效提升了加拿大食品安全水平。建议我国可从完善府际协调方式、转变政府对行业协会支持方式以及推进国际监管合作三个方面,进一步推进我国食品安全治理体系建设。     

Trace elements in Canadian field peas: a grain safety assurance perspective

Canada is a significant exporter of field peas and, thus, issues of food safety are important in all grain and food products within the international marketplace. Environmental contaminants, such as trace elements, may be present in all foods and, as a result, international standards have been established for a number of toxic trace elements, such as cadmium, lead, mercury and arsenic, in raw food commodities and food products. The Canadian Grain Commission has undertaken a baseline study of various trace elements in Canadian peas to ensure compliance with international food safety legislation. Mean total cadmium content was found to be 0.023 mg kg^?1; arsenic and lead mean values were below the method limit of quantification of 0.050 mg kg^?1 and the total mean mercury level was below the quantification level of 0.002 mg kg^?1. All measured values in the study were below the maximum residue levels (MRLs) established by the FAO and WHO in the Codex Alimentarius. The mean total selenium content was 0.331 mg kg^?1, with 56% of the measured values exceeding the MRL established by the People's Republic of China (PRC) of 0.3 mg kg^?1. No Codex MRL has been established for selenium as it is regarded as an essential trace element for human health and the PRC is currently reviewing its MRL for selenium in light of this fact. For those parts of the world where selenium-deficiency is of nutritional concern, the higher level of selenium in Canadian peas and their products may be of nutritional benefit.     

Neural network models for growth of Salmonella serotypes in ground chicken subjected to temperature abuse during cold storage for application in HACCP and risk assessment

Predictive microbiology models are valuable tools for helping to assess and manage the risk of illness from food contaminated with human pathogens, such as Salmonella. However, multiple versions of a model may be needed for different food safety applications, such as hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) programs and risk assessment. A neural network model for growth of Salmonella in ground chicken as a function of time (0 to 8 days) at 16 °C and serotype (n = 8) was developed. The proportion of residuals in an acceptable prediction zone (pAPZ) from ?1 log (fail‐safe) to 0.5 log (fail‐dangerous) was 0.948 for training data (n = 192) and 0.988 for testing data (n = 84). A pAPZ ≥0.7 indicated that the model provided predictions with acceptable bias and accuracy. Thus, the model was successfully validated. Different versions of the model were developed for application in HACCP and risk assessment.     

旅游食品安全治理中社会监督机制

旅游食品安全治理中的社会监督机制主要包括消费者的维权监督、社会组织监督和行业自律监督3种形式。在社会监督机制的实践运行中,存在明显的消费者维权能力不足、社会组织监督专业能力欠缺,以及行业自律管理机制尚未真正建立等问题。因此,可以从采取对消费者进行旅游食品安全维权的宣传和教育、建立以消费者协会为主的多元化社会组织监督体系,以及明确旅游食品行业协会旅游食品安全自律管理的法定义务等层面,保证相关社会监督机制的顺利运作,为消费者获得安全的旅游食品提供可靠的社会监督保障。     

消费者对转基因食品的安全风险感知研究——以成都部分消费群体为样本

摘要：目的 探讨消费者对转基因食品的风险感知及购买行为影响因素;方法 以成都消费者为研究对象, 通过构建风险认知感知模型, 研究不同不同人口统计特征、认知程度和参与程度对转基因食品安全的风险感知因素,并探寻转基因风险感知因素对购买意愿的影响。结果 不同人口统计特征对风险感知因子的影响不同。认知程度与功能风险的影响呈现为显著的负相关关系;信息渠道获取数量越多,越不认为转基因食品具有健康风险和功能风险。关注程度和担心程度越高,对风险感知因子的影响越显著。风险感知因子对购买意愿都有呈现的显著负相关,即风险感知因子越强,越不愿意购买转基因食品。     

Biosecurity Measures to Control Salmonella and Other Infectious Agents in Pig Farms: A Review

Salmonellosis is the 2nd most common cause of human bacterial food poisoning and can be acquired from meat or eggs, either via direct consumption or cross‐contamination in the kitchen. The European Commission has set the criteria to control Salmonella infections within the poultry sector and it is proposed that the swine sector should follow. Pork is considered, after eggs, the major source of infection in humans in the EU, with Salmonella typhimurium, including monophasic strains, being frequently implicated. Good control measures at the farm level are likely to correspond with lower prevalence of Salmonella infection and, subsequently, a reduction of cross‐contamination of carcasses processed at the slaughterhouse and a reduction in human salmonellosis. This review focuses on biosecurity measures in pig farms that can help to control important pig diseases at the same time as reducing the within‐herd prevalence of Salmonella. This information is likely to provide an economic incentive for farmers to apply improved general standards of farm biosecurity and hygiene management that would have a positive impact in food safety.     

Prevalence,Distribution, and Diversity of Salmonella spp. in Meat Samples Collected from Italian Slaughterhouses

Recently worldwide food safety authorities indicated the rise of foodborne outbreaks linked to Salmonella: this highlighted the need to intensify monitoring and apply more targeted controls to help manage the spread of the disease. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence and distribution of Salmonella serotypes in 7 slaughterhouses, located in different areas of Naples province (Regione Campania, Italy). Meat samples collected from the slaughterhouses were submitted for standardized microbiological analysis in 2015. Results of routine testing for Salmonella spp. were analyzed and then compared to biochemical and molecular evaluations. Salmonella spp. were detected in 12% of 320 samples examined (39/320) and the isolation rates ranged from 87% (32 samples) for raw poultry meat to 13% (7 samples) for pork meat. Biochemical serotyping showed that approximately 50% of the isolates belonged to Salmonella enterica serotype Choleraesuis. Rapid detection methods, such as molecular analysis (polymerase chain reaction and gel electrophoresis), able to confirm food matrices contamination, represent a valid support to the fast identification of Salmonella species. A further aspect of the study consisted, indeed, on analyzing isolated strains through molecular evaluations. By amplifying bacterial DNA—using invA primers, selective for Salmonella—it was possible, in less than 3 h, to classify the isolates as Salmonella spp., confirming the results of microbiological outcomes. Results of distribution analysis, supported by rapid molecular approaches, showed the difficulty of reducing Salmonella risk on food chain. This emphasized the importance of periodic surveillance to prevent outbreaks.