Calibration of the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer long wavelength channel

The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) experiment on board the Mars Express mission has two channels covering the 1.2-5 μm (SWC) and the 5-50 μm (LWC). The Long Wavelength Channel (LWC) measures the thermal emission spectrum of Mars between 200 and 2000 cm⁻¹ with a spectral resolution of 1.4 cm⁻¹, in absence of apodisation. We present here the calibration of this channel and its performance. The instrument calibration has been performed on ground, before launch, in space during Near Earth Verification (NEV) measurements, and at Mars. Special attention has been given to the problem of microvibrations on board the spacecraft.In order to obtain correct results, the source-instrument-detector interaction is studied very accurately. The instrument variations during a pericentre pass impose a complex procedure for the LW channel calibration, but fortunately the procedure adopted seems to work well. Samples of the calibrated data are given (as single spectrum and as an average over a few spectra) to show the performance of the experiment and its scientific potentialities.     

Analysis of disturbances in the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer through numerical modeling

Fourier transform spectrometers are instruments with high sensitivity to many kinds of disturbances. This study started from the analysis of the disturbances related to mechanical vibrations on the PFS FTIR spectrometer to show how the measured spectra can differ from the actual ones. The complete study, more in general, accounts for the characteristics of a real instrument and its operating environment to show, which can be the effects of many sources of disturbances on realistic measurements. The analysis is especially relevant when the spectra are used for the determination of parameters through “best fitting techniques” by matching with synthetic ones because it shows how spectral features used in these studies can be modified by disturbances. A previous work addressed the theoretical treatment of vibrations borne effects on FTIR spectrometers and is the ground work for the present; however, that study, being based on an analytical approach could only show examples of single effects on simplified input signals such as emission lines. This study conversely is based on a numerical model, developed in order to include altogether the effects addressed in the theoretical work to show combined effects on complex spectra like those expected from Mars. This allows not only to evaluate the linked effects of many kinds of disturbances but also to account for the real spectrometer characteristics. The use of synthetic spectra as input allows the comparison between expected spectra and measured ones. The simulation is tailored on the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS), onboard the ESA Mars Express spacecraft, from 2003 orbiting around Mars and in particular on its short wavelength (SW) channel, where many disturbances are more evident.     

The radiometric performances of the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer for Mars exploration

The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) is a Fourier transform interferometer, operating in the range 1.2–45 μm. The instrument, previously included in the payload of the failed mission Mars ′96, is proposed for the future space mission Mars Express, under study by ESA. The present paper is aimed at presenting the radiometric performances of PFS. The two channels (LW and SW) forming PFS were analysed and characterised in terms of sensitivity and noise equivalent brightness. To cover the wide spectral range of PFS, different blackbodies were used for calibration. The built-in blackbodies, needed for the in-flight calibrations, were also characterised. The results show that the LW channel is comparable with IRIS Mariner 9 in terms of noise equivalent brightness. The SW channel performances, while satisfactorily, could be improved by lowering the sensor operative temperature. A simple model of the Mars radiance is used in order to calculate the signal-to-noise ratio on the spectra in typical observation conditions. The computed signal-to-noise ratio for the LW channel varies between 430 and 40, while for the SW channel it ranges from 150 to 30. The radiometric analyses confirm that PFS performances are compliant with the design requirements of the instrument. PFS is fully validated for future remote exploration of the atmosphere and the surface of Mars.     

The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) onboard the European Mars Express mission

The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) for the Mars Express mission is an infrared spectrometer optimised for atmospheric studies. This instrument has a short wave (SW) channel that covers the spectral range from 1700 to (1.2-) and a long-wave (LW) channel that covers 250- (5.5-). Both channels have a uniform spectral resolution of . The instrument field of view FOV is about 1.6^° (FWHM) for the Short Wavelength channel (SW) and 2.8^° (FWHM) for the Long Wavelength channel (LW) which corresponds to a spatial resolution of 7 and 12 km when Mars is observed from an height of 250  km. PFS can provide unique data necessary to improve our knowledge not only of the atmosphere properties but also about mineralogical composition of the surface and the surface-atmosphere interaction.The SW channel uses a PbSe detector cooled to 200-220 K while the LW channel is based on a pyroelectric (L_iT_aO₃) detector working at room temperature. The intensity of the interferogram is measured every 150 nm of physical mirrors displacement, corresponding to 600 nm optical path difference, by using a laser diode monochromatic light interferogram (a sine wave), whose zero crossings control the double pendulum motion. PFS works primarily around the pericentre of the orbit, only occasionally observing Mars from large distances. Each measurements take 4 s, with a repetition time of 8.5 s. By working roughly 0.6 h around pericentre, a total of 330 measurements per orbit will be acquired 270 looking at Mars and 60 for calibrations. PFS is able to take measurements at all local times, facilitating the retrieval of surface temperatures and atmospheric vertical temperature profiles on both the day and the night side.     

Methods for the analysis of data from the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer on the Mars Express Mission

This work presents an algorithm for the scientific analysis of individual calibrated measurements from the Planetary Fourier spectrometer (PFS).The instrument, included in the scientific payload of the ESA Mars Express mission to Mars, acquires spectra in the range between 250 and 8200 cm⁻¹, with a sampling step of ∼1 cm⁻¹ and an effective resolution of ∼2 cm⁻¹. The observed radiance depends on several parameters of the atmosphere and surface of Mars as described by the radiative transfer equation. Adopting the very general formalism of Bayesian analysis, we determined which quantities are actually retrievable from individual measurements. Namely, they are: the surface temperature, the column density of dust and water ice aerosols in the atmosphere, the air temperature as a function of altitude (in the indicative range 5-45 km above the surface), the surface pressure, and the column density of water vapor and carbon monoxide. These evaluations are carried out taking into account the noise equivalent radiance (NER) of the instrument and the natural variabilities of the investigated parameters in the Martian environment, as estimated from the expectations of the European Martian Climate Dataset v3.1 (EMCD). Other parameters included in the radiative transfer equation shall be assumed as known, because they are not retrievable from individual measurements due to the instrumental NER or an underconstrained inverse problem: the surface emissivity in the thermal infrared, the optical properties of suspended dust and the analytical shape of dust concentration vs. altitude.During the development of the algorithm devoted to these studies, different approaches were evaluated on the basis of formal, computational and scientific considerations, with the aim to develop the general design of an integrated software package.The resulting code was extensively tested on a wide set of simulated PFS spectra. These spectra were computed from the atmospheric and surface conditions extracted from the EMCD, assumed to be representative of the Martian environment for different values of latitude, local time and season. Their comparison with the retrievals from simulated observations allowed us to evaluate the systematic and random errors affecting the procedures with respect to the different quantities involved. The code evaluates the surface temperature with an error in the order of 1 K, while the vertical air temperature profile is computed with an uncertainty less than 2 K from in the region between 5 and 20 km above the surface, increasing up to 7 K at 50 km. The column opacity of dust, measured in terms of integrated optical thickness at 1100 cm⁻¹, is computed with an error of around 0.13. The surface pressure determination is carried out with a typical uncertainty of 0.2-0.3 millibar. Several auxiliary tests allowed us to study the correlations between the different retrieval errors and the possible causes of incorrect PFS data interpretation. The choice of a suitable model for the dust optical properties is demonstrated to be particularly critical.This paper also presents the first discussion about application of the procedure to actual PFS Martian data. Despite the calibration issues still affecting the determination of absolute radiance in the near-infrared, the algorithm is able to achieve a satisfactory modeling of observations in a wide range of situations.     

Albedo and photometric study of Mars with the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer on-board the Mars Express mission

The Short Wavelength Channel of the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) covers the 8333-1750 cm⁻¹ (1.2-5.7 μm) spectral range, that is well suited to study the reflectance properties of the martian soil. These properties vary with time due to the dust dynamics in the martian environment. Wind can blow off dust exposing soil and fresh rocks and can support grain mobility inducing local dust settling. We have analyzed PFS data from January 2004 to April 2005. A detailed photometric study of the radiance acquired from the planet has been performed in order to compare correctly measurements obtained at different viewing geometries and to produce a mosaic image of the planet. The results show good agreement with data from the Thermal Emission Spectrometer (on-board NASA Mars Global Surveyor orbiter), although some variations are observed. Some albedo changes could be due to small to medium scale dust storms. A very accurate estimation of the limb-darkening parameter has been computed from the analyzed data. The obtained values are compared with a surface roughness and a thermal inertia map in order to assess the relation between the limb-darkening parameter and the physical properties of surface.     

Numerical Fourier Expansions of the Planetary Disturbing Function

Various Fourier expansions of the planetary disturbing function can be computed numerically with the use of numerical Fourier analysis. The task to compute the most general five-dimensional Fourier expansion of disturbing function has become feasible with typical server-class computers quite recently. In such an expansion two anomalies, two arguments of perihelions and two longitudes of the node are independent angular variables, while two semi-major axes, two eccentricities and two inclinations are fixed numerically. The semianalytical expansion of the disturbing function resulting from numerical Fourier analysis theoretically converges for any values of the parameters except for those sets of parameters which allow the bodies to collide. Various aspects of the numerical computation of the Fourier expansion are discussed. Theoretical and practical convergence of the Fourier series is discussed and illustrated. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Planetary observations at a wavelength of 1.32 mm

Observations at a wavelength of 1.32 mm have been made of the Jovian planets, Ceres, the satellites Callisto and Ganymede, and the HII region DR 21. The observed brightness temperatures are presented. Those of the Jovian planets agree with the values expected from model atmosphere calculations, except that of Jupiter, which is lower than expected. Ceres and the satellites do not have atmospheres so their emission arised in their subsurface layers. The observed brightness temperatures are intermediate between those measured at infrared and centimeter wavelengths.     

Planetary brightness temperature measurements at 1.4-mm wavelength

Precise relative measurements of the disk brightness temperatures of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn have been made at a mean wavelength of 1.4 mm. The rings of Saturn contribute significantly to the observed total emission. Other results include a better understanding of the properties of the NRAO 11-m antenna near its high frequency limit and of atmospheric degradation of observations in this wavelength range.     

EUV Full-Sun Imaging and Pointing Calibration of the SOHO Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer

Although the field of view of the Normal Incidence Spectrometer (NIS) of the Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer (CDS) is 4×4 arc min, it is possible to observe the full solar disk by forming a mosaic of images taken in succession. This paper describes just such a study which has been used to collect images of the Sun simultaneously in six wavelengths between 304 Ú and 630 Ú, and with a temperature coverage between 5×10⁴ K and 2.5×10⁶ K. A representative sample of the resulting images is presented. These data can be used to explore the origin of solar EUV variability, and examine large-scale solar features. Another use of these data is to calibrate the pointing of the CDS Offset Pointing System (OPS), by comparing them against the SOHO Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) full-disk images taken at the same time. Many joint observations are made with CDS and other SOHO instruments, and calibration of the pointing is crucial to the co-pointing of the instruments, and to the analyses of these data. Coalignment is done by fitting to a cross-correlation function, using an IDL procedure which can be applied to any CDS/NIS data set. The accuracy of an individual coalignment can be demonstrated to be in the range 1–2 arc sec. The overall accuracy of the OPS calibration is ±5 arc sec, mainly attributable to measurement error in the actuator positions. An onboard Spartan Intermediate Sun Sensor of the Lockheed design, which was intended to provide greater pointing accuracy, exhibits a time-varying calibration, possibly due to a gradual loss of sensitivity.     

The transient behaviour of the long wavelength channel of ISOCAM

The detector of the long wavelength channel of the ISOCAMcamera on-board the Infrared Space Observatory is a Galliumdoped Silicon photo-conductor hybridized by Indium bump. Itpresents systematic memory effects of the response which canbias the photometry by a factor of typically 40%. The main features of the response after flux variations are discussed. A simple empirical model actually used to correct systematically the data with a photometric accuracy of 5–10% is detailed.     

Planetary Fourier spectrometer data analysis: Fast radiative transfer models

We present fast algorithms used in IKI and IFSI for the analysis of the Martian spectra measured in the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) experiment onboard Mars Express orbiter. The first algorithm is based on a new very general and precise approach applicable to planetary atmospheres with quite arbitrary absorption and scattering properties. The method is aimed at the simulation of high-resolution planetary spectrum in a broad spectral region with computational expenses typical to two-stream algorithms and a precision close to that of time consuming exact methods. The basic idea is to compute first a required quantity with an approximate method and then to evaluate a correction to the first approximation with just a few runs of a precise code in representative spectral channels. The correction is built as a function of the first-approximation quantity itself. The necessary input to the radiative transfer—monochromatic gaseous opacity—was evaluated by means of simple interpolation from pre-computed tables. As far as the algorithm deals with monochromatic quantities, its applications are limited to direct and even inverse problems that require the exact treatment of scattering and the absence of small-scale distortions of the spectrum. The second of the presented algorithms, based on the interpolations of the convolved transmission functions, is designed to be used in inverse problems that need a very fast evaluation of the synthetic spectrum over a broad spectral region. Performances of both methods are considered.     

A short wavelength instability in the neutral sheet of the earth's geomagnetic tail

In an earlier paper, Bowers (1973), ion plasma oscillations were found to be unstable in the steady state developed by Cowley (1972) for the neutral sheet in the Earth's geomagnetic tail. In this paper a similar stability analysis is carried out but for a different steady state, suggested by Dungey, with the result that unstable waves with frequencies near the electron plasma frequency are found. In the Dungey steady state the current necessary for magnetic field reversal is carried by plasma originating from both the magnetosheath and the lobes of the tail. This modifies the steady state proposed by Alfvén and subsequently developed by Cowley in which all the current is carried by plasma from the lobes of the tail thereby fixing the cross-tail potential Φ. With magnetosheath plasma present the value of Φ is no longer fixed solely by parameters in the lobes of the tail but the cross-tail electric field is still assumed localised in the dusk region of the sheet as in the Cowley model due to the balance of charge required in the neutral sheet. The value of Φ can be expected to increase as magnetic flux is transported to the tail which inflates and causes flux annihilation because the magneto-sheath plasma in the neutral sheet has insufficient pressure to keep the two lobes of the tail apart. The Vlasov-Maxwell set of equations is perturbed and linearised enabling a critical condition for instability to be found for modes propagating across the tail. Typically, this condition requireseΦ≳KT _m whereT _m is the temperature of magnetosheath electrons. The instability occurs in the presence of cold plasma which hasE×B drifted into the neutral sheet from the lobes of the tail. This contrasts with the usual two stream instability which is stabilised by the cold plasma. Once precipitated the instability may be explosive provided current disruption occurs, for then a further increase in Φ will result which drives a greater range of wave numbers unstable thereby causing even more turbulence and an even larger cross-tail electric field. Because of this behaviour the instability may be a trigger for a substorm.     

ASO-S卫星HXI量能器探测单元的标定

先进天基太阳天文台卫星(Advanced Space-based Solar Observatory, ASO-S)是中国科学院第2批空间科学先导专项之一,其主要目标是同时观测太阳磁场、耀斑和日冕物质抛射,并对3者之间的相互关系和内在联系进行研究.硬X射线成像仪(HXI)是ASOS卫星的3大载荷之一,它通过对太阳活动发射的硬X射线进行傅里叶调制成像,实现高空间分辨率和高时间分辨率的太阳能谱成像观测.量能器单机是HXI的关键单机之一,其主要任务是精准测量通过每对光栅后太阳硬X射线的能量和通量.主要介绍了量能器单机的工作原理及其关键指标要求、标定设备及标定方案,最后给出了标定结果,从而验证了量能器单机方案设计的合理性.     

D-region recombination coefficients and the short wavelength X-ray flux during a solar flare

VLF phase and amplitude measurements were made on five different frequencies at São Paulo, Brazil during a solar flare which occurred on 22nd January 1972. The phase and amplitude measurements during the decay phase of the flare were combined with the full wave solutions of Wait and Spies (1964) to calculate the recombination coefficient in the lower ionosphere. The values thus obtained are lower than those reported by Reid (1970), but are compatible with those reported by Montbriand et al. (1972) during Solar X-ray events. The effective loss rates have been utilized to calculate the ion-production at the maximum of the flare, which in turn has been utilized to calculate the incident X-ray flux as a function of wavelength at the maximum of the flare. Extensions to the calculations are discussed.     

H and K Ca II plage profiles obtained with a Fourier Transform Spectrometer

Solar Physics - H and K Ca ii plage profiles have been obtained with the Kitt Peak Fourier Transform Spectrometer. A good correlation exists between the K1 minimum separation and the K index....     

OMEGA long wavelength channel: Data reduction during non-nominal stages

The Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l’Eau, les Glaces et l’Activité (OMEGA) instrument is a visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer on board the European Mars Express (MEx) mission. The on-board calibration (OBC) performed at the beginning of observations on each orbit reveals that the photometric response of the C channel (1.0–2.5 μm) has been very stable since orbit insertion in January 2004. On the contrary the L channel (2.5–5.1 μm) response has varied significantly during the mission, and only orbits for which the response is close to nominal could be used with confidence. The spatial coverage of ice-free surfaces in this wavelength range is consequently limited to only ～30%, mainly during northern spring and summer. This paper presents the empirical method used to derive new instrumental transfer functions (ITF) for the non-nominal orbits. This method consists of analyzing the variation of the signal between several observations of a same region acquired at nominal and non-nominal calibration states. In the cases where the mineralogy and the atmospheric conditions between the two observations are the same, the variation in reflectance spectra is only due to the ITF variation, which provides a new ITF. We then associate these new ITFs with their corresponding OBCs to model a relationship between both. The resulting model enables us to provide a new ITF for each orbit for which the OBC is available. The new ITFs derived for the entire dataset have been validated (1) through a comparison of the C and L channel global albedo trends and (2) through a comparison of the surface temperatures derived from the L channel with those calculated from the General Circulation Model (GCM) numerical simulation of the LMD released in the Martian Climate Database. The non-nominal data processed with adapted ITFs for orbits up to 3050 increase the non-icy surface coverage of Mars to ～70% including all seasons.     

宽波段傅里叶变换太阳光谱仪等光程差采样系统设计

太阳成像光谱探测是诊断太阳大气磁场和热力学参数的主要手段. 傅里叶变换太阳光谱仪(Fourier Transform Solar Spectrometer, FTSS)具有宽波段的优势, 是当前中红外高分辨率太阳光谱探测的最佳选择. FTSS通过采集目标辐射等光程差干涉图, 反演获得光谱图, 等光程差采样的间隔决定了反演光谱波长范围. 因此从FTSS宽波段光谱观测对不同等光程差采样间隔需求出发, 基于现场可编程门阵列(Field Programmable Gate Array, FPGA)技术, 采用全数字分频、倍频方案, 设计了一套宽波段FTSS等光程差采样系统. 采用分布式余数补偿方法, 有效解决了在参考激光干涉信号倍频过程中, 输出采样信号在输出信号周期间误差累积问题, 并降低了输出采样信号的误差及非均匀性; 经功能仿真及实验测试, 系统在200Hz--50kHz频率范围内, 频率误差delta $<$ 0.04%, 可有效满足FTSS的300nm--25μm宽波段的光谱观测数据采集需求, 为后续可见和红外波段FTSS的研制奠定了技术基础.     

Titan's surface at 2.2-cm wavelength imaged by the Cassini RADAR radiometer: Calibration and first results

The first comprehensive calibration and mapping of the thermal microwave emission from Titan's surface is reported based on radiometric data obtained at 2.2-cm wavelength by the passive radiometer included in the Cassini Radar instrument. The data reported were accumulated from 69 separate observational segments in Titan passes from Ta (October 2004) through T30 (May 2007) and include emission from 94% of Titan's surface. They are diverse in the key observing parameters of emission angle, polarization, and spatial resolution, and their reduction into calibrated global mosaic maps involved several steps. Analysis of the polarimetry obtained at low to moderate resolution (50+ km) enabled integration of the radiometry into a single mosaic of the equivalent brightness temperature at normal incidence with a relative precision of about 1 K. The Huygens probe measurement of Titan's surface temperature and radiometry obtained on Titan's dune fields allowed us to infer an absolute calibration estimated to be accurate to a level approaching 1 K. The results provide evidence for a surface that is complex and varied on large scales. The radiometry primarily constrains physical properties of the surface, where we see strong evidence for subsurface (volume) scattering as a dominant mechanism that determines the emissivity, with the possibility of a fluffy or graded-density surface layer in many regions. The results are consistent with, but not necessarily definitive of a surface composition resulting from the slow deposition and processing of organic compounds from the atmosphere.