Errata: "Effects of Client Preference and Expectancy upon the Initial Interview".

Reports an error in the original article "Effects of Client Preference and Expectancy upon the Initial Interview" by Andris Ziemelis (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1974[Jan], 21[1], 23-30). On page 27, an error occurred in Table 1. The F value in the Expectancy column for the Client Satisfaction variable should read 1.19. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1974-26107-001.) Used a 2×3 design with 10 Ss per cell to show how initial counseling interview process and outcome are affected by (a) assigning clients to either more preferred or less preferred counselors; (b) giving clients either positive, nonexistent, or negative expectancy inductions regarding their counselor assignments; and (c) congruence and incongruence between clients' expectations and experiences. Process and outcome were assessed using client and counselor self-report measures and audiotape segment ratings. More preferred assignment conditions received more favorable tape ratings than did less preferred assignment conditions. Positive or no-expectancy conditions revealed a more favorable counseling outcome than did negative expectancy conditions. Most Ss showed increased preferences for counselors seen despite congruence or incongruence between their expectations and experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Manipulating Subjective Expectancy Through Feedback: A Laboratory Study of the Expectancy-Performance Relationship": Correction to Janz.

Reports an error in the original article by Janz (Journal of Applied Psychology. Vol 67(4) Aug 1982, 480-485). On page 481 and 484, the numbers of subjects in some places were reported incorrectly. The corrections are provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1982-29612-001.) Investigated the form of the expectancy-performance relationship in a laboratory study of the performance of 132 undergraduates on a simple clerical task. As feedback after each of 8 trials, Ss were told that their performance was better, worse, or borderline. Ss recorded their subjective expectancies before each trial. Over all Ss, feedback condition had no impact on performance; but when 39 Ss whose reported expectancy did not match their assigned feedback were eliminated, a strong expectancy-performance relationship emerged. Ss having intermediate expectancy outperformed those whose expectancy was low or high. Examination of the nonbelievers supported the mediating role of cognitive variables in deciding how hard to work at this task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The generalization of expectancies.

To test the proposition that generalization of expectancy changes occurs along a dimension of learned-goal similarity, a level-of-aspiration paradigm was utilized. The results were dealt with in terms of proportion of Ss who changed their expectancies on three generalization tasks (which varied in goal-relatedness to a control task by decreasing amounts) after experiencing success or failure on the control task. The data supported the hypothesis and indicated that the three tasks were significantly different from each other in relative position along the dimension of goal similarity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validity of expectancy theory as a within-person behavioral choice model for sales activities.

Using 62 female life insurance sales representatives (mean age 36.5 yrs) in Japan, the present study hypothesized, based on an expectancy model of choice, that when choosing among 6 types of policies to sell, Ss would more frequently choose the policy associated with the larger force score. Ss were required to fill out a questionnaire containing measures of the expectancy of sales success, the valence for 4 self-generated outcomes, and the instrumentality of sales success for those outcomes. The number of policies sold was used as an index of performance for each policy. An overall contingency table based on the item ranks indicated significant relationships between force and performance. The average within-person Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient for force and performance for those 6 policy types was .50. Implications for expectancy theory as a within-person choice model and some methodological problems involved in the present study are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-evaluation and subjective life expectancy among suicidal and nonsuicidal psychotic males.

Self-evaluation and expectancy scales were administered to 96 psychotic males, and protocols were later divided into suicidal (N = 43) and nonsuicidal (N = 53) groups, on the basis of record information. Self-evaluation (SE) was relatively low for covertly suicidal Ss, but not for Ss who had made actual suicide attempts. Suicidal Ss did not have a shorter subjective life expectancy (SLE) than nonsuicidals, but SLE was directly associated with SE regardless of suicidal tendencies. Constricted, "work-only" future plans were associated with SE and SLE among suicidals only, suggesting that the content of the subjective future may mediate the relationship between SE and SLE in suicidal patients. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive processing and expectancy behavior in hypnosis

Two independent studies, each with 60 undergraduates, were conducted to examine the expectancy behavior of unselected hypnotic, task-motivated, and control-imagination Ss on a slide task requiring response to ambiguous visual information. Study 1 tested Ss within 2 positively motivating contexts, which differed in the ease with which they confirmed the hypnotist's expectancy. Study 2 required Ss to shift from reporting one response to reporting an altogether different one when the same stimulus information was presented on successive testing occasions. Results from the program of work show that hypnotic Ss consistently demonstrated expectancy behavior, whereas nonhypnotic Ss did not. Analysis of stimulus matching data and time taken for response further indicated that substantially different cognitive routes were taken by hypnotic Ss in their acquiescence to the hypnotist's demands. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Good looks may help: Effects of helper's physical attractiveness and sex of helper on males' and females' help-seeking behavior.

96 19–21 yr old Ss were asked to solve a detective story and were under the impression that correct solutions could be obtained only after a specified number of preliminary questions were answered correctly. Some of these questions were unanswerable, and Ss could ask another S for help. In line with past research (E. Bercheid and E. Walster, 1974; A. Nadler, see PA, Vol 66:5817; H. Sigall and E. Aronson, PA, Vol 43:8310; S. Stokes and L. Bickman, PA, Vol 54:3045), data indicate that for same-sex others, Ss tended to seek less help from physically attractive than unattractive helpers. In cases of cross-sex helping (a) males sought less help from a physically attractive female than an unattractive female and (b) females sought more help from a physically attractive than an unattractive male. Findings are discussed in terms of a self-presentation approach to interpersonal help-seeking behavior. A model of help-seeking and self-presentation is presented. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inducement of expectancy and set of subjects as determinants of subjects' responses in experimenter expectancy research.

Describes an experiment in which 18 undergraduate Es tested 216 undergraduate Ss on a simple motor performance task under 3 conditions of induced expectancy in which (a) the hypothesis was simply told to the Es, (b) the principal investigator role-played great concern about the outcome, or (c) Es were asked to manipulate actively Ss' responses. Ss were assigned to 3 conditions of evaluation apprehension. The method of randomization allowed for a check on the effects of early-testing vs. late-testing of Ss. When the Es were simply told about the hypothesis of changes in response rates across time, no expectancy effects were noted. When the principal investigator showed concern about the outcome, a significant Expectancy * Evaluation Apprehension interaction effect was obtained across the 6 trials of the task. When the Es attempted actively to manipulate results, effects opposite to their expectancies were observed. An analysis of tape-recordings of the experimental sessions revealed that intentional-inducement Es spoke more than other Es. Results indicate that a minimum of both E outcome concern and S performance concern must be present for the mediation of an expectancy. It is postulated that the reversed expectancy effects for Ss tested by intentional-inducement Es might have been due to Ss reacting against strong cues transmitted by the Es. (French summary) (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

As failures mount: Affective and cognitive consequences of ability demotion in the classroom.

Hypothesized that reduced plausibility of explanations, such as insufficient study, lead to increasing self-attributions to inability that in turn mediate shame and lowered expectancies for future success. 339 undergraduates were administered a series of tests and the Michigan State Self-Concept of Ability Scale. Ss who experienced successive subjective failure gave postdictive explanations for each failure, indicated degree of shame, and rated expectancy for future success. Ss experiencing belated success after an initial failure were also examined. Path analysis confirmed self-worth predictions and suggested that despair observed in the learned helplessness paradigm occurred not so much from the noncontingent reinforcement of effort as from Ss' failure to protect a sense of personal competency. (65 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancy changes in depression and schizophrenia.

Does the learned helplessness model of depression apply to clinically depressed patients and is it specific to depression? Changes in expectancy following success and failure in skill and chance tasks were assessed for depressed nonschizophrenics (unipolar depressives), depressed schizophrenics, nondepressed schizophrenics, and normal controls (32 Ss, aged 18–50 yrs). Unipolar depressives showed smaller changes in expectancy of future success after failure in the skill task than did the controls and both schizophrenic groups. Depressed schizophrenics did not show smaller expectancy changes than nondepressed schizophrenics. The learned helplessness model has been tested primarily in populations with subclinical depression; the present results provide partial support for learned helplessness as a model of one type of severe clinical depression and suggest that learned helplessness is not a general feature of psychopathology. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressive self-presentation: Beyond self-handicapping.

An experiment was conducted to examine the notion that depressives' responses would reflect a protective self-presentation style (M. G. Hill et al, 1986), the underlying goal of which would be the avoidance of future performance demands and potential losses in self-esteem. In this study, depressed and nondepressed Ss were asked to perform a relatively simple visual–motor task. Half of the depressed and half of the nondepressed Ss were told that if they were successful at the task, they would be asked to perform a 2nd similar task. The remaining Ss were given no such expectation of future performance. We predicted and found that depressed compared with nondepressed Ss strategically failed at the task when presented with the possibility of future performance and further losses in esteem. Moreover, this strategic failure was associated with some costs; depressed, future performance expectancy Ss experienced more discomfort or negative affect as a result of their performance. The relationship between this depressive self-presentation and self-handicapping strategies is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of goal value upon expectancy.

Within the framework of Rotter's social learning theory, this study investigated the effect of different goal (reinforcement) values upon expectancy. 94 boys, ranging in age from 9 to 11, were selected from the fifth and sixth grades of a public school system to serve as Ss. The tasks, representing three different levels of goal value, were the Rotter level-of-aspiration board, a rotary pursuit test, and a six-block tapping test. 71 Ss performed the tasks without a penalty for inaccuracy of estimates, and 23 performed the same tasks with a penalty imposed for inaccuracy of estimates. The most consistent finding was that the value of an event has some effect upon stated expectancy. It was also found that expectancies were significantly lower in highly valued situations; that with continued experience expectancies remained significantly lower in high value conditions; and that the association of a goal value for accuracy (penalty) to expectancy statements leads to more realistic expectancies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client preference and expectancy upon the initial interview.

Used a 2 * 3 design with 10 Ss per cell to show how initial counseling interview process and outcome are affected by (a) assigning clients to either more preferred or less preferred counselors; (b) giving clients either positive, nonexistent, or negative expectancy inductions regarding their counselor assignments; and (c) congruence and incongruence between clients' expectations and experiences. Process and outcome were assessed using client and counselor self-report measures and audiotape segment ratings. More preferred assignment conditions received more favorable tape ratings than did less preferred assignment conditions. Positive or no-expectancy conditions revealed a more favorable counseling outcome than did negative expectancy conditions. Most Ss showed increased preferences for counselors seen despite congruence or incongruence between their expectations and experiences. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unemployment and depressive affect: A motivational and attributional analysis.

Hypothesized on the basis of expectancy/valence theory that the negative affect that follows failure to obtain employment will be stronger among those individuals who are more strongly motivated to seek employment than among those who are less motivated. This hypothesis was tested by administering a questionnaire to 212 unemployed youth (mean age 19.76 yrs). Consistent with the hypothesis, results show that Ss who indicated in their ratings that they were highly motivated to get a job also provided higher ratings of depressive affect. Those Ss with higher levels of depressive affect were less likely to blame themselves for their unemployment and more likely to blame external difficulties, such as the current economic situation. They also provided higher ratings of the valence or perceived attractiveness of work itself. Their retrospective ratings concerning how confident they were of getting a job on leaving school and how much they needed and tried for a job also tended to be higher than those of the less depressed Ss. Results are discussed in relation to the expectancy/valence approach, A. T. Beck's (1967, 1976, 1979) theory of depression, helplessness theory of depression, and recent discussions of cognitive–affect linkages that employ attribution concepts. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using the False Memory Paradigm to Test Two Key Elements of Alcohol Expectancy Theory.

Two key aspects of alcohol expectancy theory-(a) that memories about alcohol effects are stored as relatively cohesive templates of information and (b) that these templates are automatically activated in alcohol-related contexts-were tested using the Deese-Roediger- McDermott false memory paradigm. Alcohol expectancy adjectives were studied, and false memory for expectancy target words was tested in neutral and alcohol contexts. Results indicated that in the alcohol context heavier drinkers showed more false memory for alcohol expectancy words than they did in a neutral context. Differences were not found for lighter drinkers. These results were consistent with alcohol expectancy theory, which was then compared with various forms of association theory in explaining these results and larger issues in the addiction field. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancy of success and the probability learning of retarded children.

Tested 23 male and 22 female institutionalized retarded children who had previously experienced either a success, failure, or control precondition on a probability learning task designed to assess expectancy of success. Ss were matched for CA, MA, IQ, and length of institutionalization. The following measures were also collected as S variables: Locus-of-Control Scale, Cottage Rating Scales, school rating, and Reading and Arithmetic subscales from the Metropolitan Achievement Test. The preconditions were found to have many of the expected effects on the cognitive strategies employed in the learning task. Ss in the failure condition showed the greatest avoidance of failure (maximizing strategy), while Ss in the success condition tended to show more success striving (lose-shift strategy). Males were found to exhibit more failure-avoiding strategies than females. The overall pattern of results is interpreted as providing support for the hypothesis that a low expectancy of success in retarded children can be modified. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quantification of biographical data for predicting vocational rehabilitation success.

To devise an instrument based on biographical data to classify applicants for State vocational rehabilitation services in terms of success and to construct expectancy charts to indicate probability of success of future applicants. The Ss were 200 clients closed in fiscal year 1960 as being employed and 200 closed in fiscal year 1960 as being unemployed, as well as 40 in each category closed during fiscal year 1961. 86 items of personal data were obtained for key K1 and 20 selected items were obtained for key K2. Results were: variance between criterion subgroups could be maximized for classification, scores could be derived to classify clients, scores could be combined to establish expectancy charts, and K2 predicted expectancies better than K1. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in goal-object preference as a function of expectancy for social reinforcement.

Ss ranked ten preselected toys and received E's verbal approval as reinforcement. "Following a constant number of experiences with several goal objects, the resulting preference changes measured after one day appeared to be related to either the expectancy for, or the frequency of, social reinforcement… . Changes in preference value after eight days were less specific to reinforcement conditions… ." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role playing variations and their informational value for person perception.

The hypotheses were offered that the degree to which an individual conforms to a role (a set of behavior expectancies), the less he reveals about himself; in complete identity with the role, S's behavior is almost entirely determined by what he experiences to be expected of him; and behavior inconsistent with role expectancy is generally determined by idiosyncratic attitudes. Ss listened to recorded interviews between a psychologist and a "job applicant." The positions were that of submariner and astronaut; both, as described, involved different personality types. Tapes were made between interviewer and interviewee for the 2 positions, from which 4 tapes were produced: 2 with the actual answers, and 2 with answers of 1 spliced to questions of the other halfway through the tape. Ss tended to perceive the out-of-role answers as revealing more of the interviewee's personality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are causal attributions causal? A path analysis of the cognitive model of achievement motivation.

Tested the causal assumptions of B. Weiner's (1972, 1974, 1977) cognitive reinterpretation of the traditional theory of achievement motivation. Ss were 206 college students varying in resultant achievement motivation who experienced feelings of failure in a course test and chose to take the exam a second time under a mastery learning system. After feedback on first test performance, Ss made attributions for their initial failure, indicated degree of shame, and rated their expectancy for success on the second test opportunity. Treatment of this system of nonmanipulated variables by path analysis techniques provided little support for the contention that variations in expectancy and retest performance depend on attributions made for a previous failure. Affect depends in part on internal attributions, but in a direction opposite to predictions. An alternative interpretation of the role of cognitive attributions in the achievement process is explored. (63 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)