Partial Melting and Its Implications for Understanding the Seismic Velocity Structure within the Southern Tibetan Crust

In order to constrain the crustal wave velocity structure in the southern Tibetan crust and provide insight into the contribution of crustal composition, geothermal gradient and partial melting to the velocity structure, which is characterized by low average crustal velocities and widespread presence of low-velocity zone(s), the authors model the crustal velocity and density as functions of depth corresponding to various heat flow values in light of velocity measurements at high temperature and high pressure. The modeled velocity and density are regarded as comparison standards. The comparison of the standards with seismic observations in southern Tibet implies that the predominantly felsic composition at high heat flow cannot explain the observed velocity structure there. Hence, the authors are in favor of attributing low average crustal velocities and low-velocity zone(s) observed in southern Tibet mainly to partial melting. Modeling based on the experimental results suggests that a melting percentage     

The Sensitive Properties of Hydrate Reservoirs Based on Seismic Stereoscopic Detection Technology

Higher-precision determinations of hydrate reservoirs, hydrate saturation levels and storage estimations are important for guaranteeing the ability to continuously research, develop and utilize natural gas hydrate resources in China. With seismic stereoscopic detection technology, which fully combines the advantages of different seismic detection models, hydrate formation layers can be observed with multiangle, wide-azimuth, wide-band data with a high precision. This technique provides more reliable data for analyzing the distribution characteristics of gas hydrate reservoirs, establishing velocity models, and studying the hydrate-sensitive properties of petrophysical parameters;these data are of great significance for the exploration and development of natural gas hydrate resources. Based on a velocity model obtained from the analysis of horizontal streamer velocity data in the hydrate-bearing area of the Shenhu Sea, this paper uses three VCs(longitudinal spacing of 25 m) and four OBSs(transverse spacing of 200 m) to jointly detect seismic datasets consisting of wave points based on an inversion of traveltime imaging sections. Accordingly, by comparing the differences between the seismic phases in the original data and the forward-modeled seismic phases, multiangle coverage constraint corrections are applied to the initial velocity model, and the initial model is further optimized, thereby improving the imaging quality of the streamer data. Petrophysical elastic parameters are the physical parameters that are most directly and closely related to rock formations and reservoir physical properties. Based on the optimized velocity model, the rock elastic hydrate-sensitive parameters of the hydrate reservoirs in the study area are inverted, and the sensitivities of the petrophysical parameters to natural gas hydrates are investigated. According to an analysis of the inversion results obtained from these sensitive parameters, λρ, Vp and λμ are simultaneously controlled by the bulk modulus and shear modulus, while Vs and μρ are controlled only by the shear modulus, and the latter two parameters are less sensitive to hydrate-bearing layers. The bulk modulus is speculated to be more sensitive than the shear modulus to hydrates. In other words, estimating the specific gravity of the shear modulus among the combined parameters can affect the results from the combined elastic parameters regarding hydrate reservoirs.     

Determining Pressure with Daughter Minerals in Fluid Inclusion by Raman Spectroscopy: Sphalerite as an Example

Abstract: Raman frequency of some materials, including minerals, molecules and ions, shifts systematically with changing pressure and temperature. This property is often used as a pressure gauge in high pressure experiments with the hydrothermal diamond anvil cell (HDAC). Since the system of fluid inclusion is similar to that of HDAC, it can also be used to determine the internal pressure of fluid inclusions. Sphalerite is a common daughter mineral. In this study, the frequency shift of the 350 cm?1 peak of sphalerite has been studied from 296 to 523 K and from 0.07 to 2.00 GPa using the HDAC. The global slope of the isotherms (?n350/?p)T is 0.0048 in the studied pressure range. No significant variation of the slopes with temperature has been observed. The correlation between the frequency shift of the 350 cm?1 peak of sphalerite and pressure and temperature is constrained as P=208.33(?np)350+3.13T?943.75. This relationship may be used to estimate the internal pressure of the sphalerite-bearing fluid inclusions.     

Experimental Study of Dissolution‐Alteration of Amphibole in a Hydrothermal Environment

Amphibole is a rock-forming mineral widely existing on the earth. It is easily dissolved and altered during the later stage of diagenesis and mineralization, and often forms chloritization, which is an important indicator for prospecting. To explore amphibole's dissolution process and alteration mechanism, dissolution experiments were carried out under acidic conditions using pargasite-rich amphibole as raw material, and the effects of temperature, p H, and experiment duration on amphibole alteration were investigated. Experimental samples and products were analyzed using X-ray diffractometer, field emission scanning electron microscope, electron probe micro analyzer, and transmission electron microscopy. It was found that many pores and erosion edges are produced after amphibole dissolution, and there is a clear interface between the dissolved residual portion and the parent. The dissolved residual portion remains in the amphibole phase, but as the temperature and time increase, the intensity of the diffraction peak of the phase in the product decreases, and the peak position shifts to a small angle. Many clay minerals such as chlorite and griffithite formed on the amphibole surface. In an environment with strong acidity(p H=3), the amount of chamosite increases with temperature(180°C→210°C→240°C), whereas clinochlore is only increased in a 150–210°C environment. Griffithite growth was observed in the acidic(p H=6) and low temperature(180°C) environments. Based on this analysis, large radius Cl– enters the amphibole lattice or cracks to promote dissolution. The Al-poor and Ca-and Fe-rich regions between the edge and core of the amphibole are caused by dynamic equilibrium in amphibole dissolution and alteration process, which is an essential indicator for the beginning of amphibole dissolution-alteration. Diffusion and the coupled dissolution-reprecipitation mechanism accomplishes the process of dissolution and alteration to form clay minerals. The energy of the system determined by temperature and p H is the key to controlling the rate of growth and nucleation of clay minerals. High temperature and strong acidity will dissolve more iron from amphibole, which is conducive to chlorite growth. Compared to chlorite, griffithite is more sensitive to temperature. Griffithite attaches on the amphibole surface with a star-like in a weak acid and low-temperature environment. The results of this study can provide a mineralogical basis for the analysis of hydrothermal alteration processes and the division of alteration zones.     

The Offset-Domain Prestack Depth Migration with Optimal Separable Approximation

The offset-domain prestack depth migration with optimal separable approximation, based on the double square root equation, is used to image complex media with large and rapid velocity variations. The method downward continues the source and the receiver wavefields simultaneously. The mixed domain algorithm with forward Fourier and inverse Fourier transform is used to construct the double square root equation wavefield extrapolation operator. This operator separates variables in the wave number domain and variables in the space domain. The phase operation is implemented in the wave number domain, whereas the time delay for lateral velocity variation is corrected in the space domain. The migration algorithm is efficient since the seismic data are not computed shot by shot. The data set test of the Marmousi model indicates that the offset-domain migration provides a satisfied seismic migration section on which complex geologic structures are imaged in media with large and rapid lateral velocity variations.     

Ambient Noise Tomography of Jinan: The Migration of Groundwater and the Formation of Geothermal Water

Jinan is an important city in eastern China, with rich groundwater in the region. There are four famous springs in the urban area and an abundance of geothermal water in the northern part, which makes the migration of groundwater in this area a very important issue. To study the shallow shear wave velocity structure and groundwater migration in Jinan, we utilized almost a month of continuous waveform data from 175 short period seismometers deployed by the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, in order to calculate the cross-correlation function. We picked 7749 group dispersion curves and 6117 phase dispersion curves with a period range of 0.2–2 s. Through inversion, we obtained the fine three-dimensional shear wave velocity and azimuthal anisotropy structure (0–2.4 km). Combining the results with local geological and hydrological data, the following conclusions were reached. (1) There are widespread high velocity anomalies in the region between the Qianfoshan and Wenhuaqiao faults, as well as to the east of the Wenhuaqiao Fault, which may be related to the intrusive gabbro known as the Jinan Intrusive Rock. (2) The two distinct high velocity anomalies in our model (referred to as west and east Jinan Intrusive Rock in this paper) may indicate that the Jinan Intrusive Rock was broken through crustal movement. (3) There is an obvious low velocity layer under the intrusive rock, which could be the channel of groundwater migration. The precipitation in the southern mountain region seeps down into the ground, then is blocked by the Jinan Intrusive Rock and can only progress downwards to a deeper part, where the groundwater is heated by the geothermal gradient. The heated water finally arrives at the northern part and forms geothermal water. (4) The depth of the low velocity layer beneath the Jinan Intrusive Rock varies laterally, which may indicate that the depth of the groundwater migration is different beneath the west and east Jinan Intrusive Rock. (5) There is strong azimuthal anisotropy in southern Jinan, with nearly E-W fast orientation, which may be related to the tilt limestone layering structure.     

Structure of the Upper Mantle and Transition Zone Beneath the South China Block Imaged by Finite Frequency Tomography

We applied the finite frequency tomography method to S wave data recorded by 350 broadband stations beneath the South China Block(SCB) and its surroundings from earthquakes occurring between July 2007 and July 2010,to better understand upper mantle deformation.Differential travel-times in the pair of stations with appropriate weighting for each station are used in the inversion.Our results are consistent with previous tomography that show a high velocity anomaly beneath the Sichuan basin and a high velocity anomaly in the transition zone beneath the Yangtze Craton.However,the resolution of mantle heterogeneity provides new insight into the tectonic framework of subduction of Burmese lithosphere in the west part of the study region and subduction of oceanic lithosphere in the east.In the subduction realm,west of 107°E,a significant fast S-wave anomaly is located on the southeast of Sichuan Basin.East of 107°E,and two narrow and discontinuous fast S-wave anomalies occur at a depth of 400-600 km beneath the middle of the South China block overlain by the pronounced low S-wave anomalies at a depth of 100 and 400 km.If the fast anomalies located in the mantle transition zone represent stagnant slabs,their fragmented nature may suggest that they could be produced by different episodes of subduction beneath western Pacific island and the above slow velocity anomaly may associated with the back-arc regions of ongoing subduction.In addition,tomography also reveals an anomalously high S-wave velocity continental root extends eastward to a depth 400 km beneath the eastern Sichuan Basin.This anomaly may be related to eastern extrusion of Indian lithosphere associated with the collision of India and Eurasia.Moreover,our results also show large slow anomalies beneath the Red River fault region connected to deeper anomalies beneath the South China Fold Belt and South China Sea.AH these observations are consistent with the scenario that the South China block has been built by both of subduction of Paleopacific plate and eastward subduction of Burma microplate.     

爆裂法作为快速测定流体包裹体中二氧化碳（和其它气体）含量的手段及其在勘探中的使用：以中国山东和河北省金矿为例

The acoustic decrepitation method heats a small monomineralic sample and counts pressure impulses as the inclusions burst when they develop high internal pressures.For aqueous fluids,the decrepitation temperature is correlated with the homogenisation temperature,but gas rich fluids give a distinct and characteristic low temperature decrepitation peak which can be used to recognize gas rich fluid inclusions.This information is useful in exploration for Au deposits,which are frequently associated with CO_2 rich and sometimes CH_4 rich fluids. This distinctive decrepitation occurs because the CO_2 rich inclusion fluids expand according to the gas law and develop internal pressures high enough to burst the host mineral grain at temperatures well below their homogenisation temperatures.In contrast,aqueous fluids condense to a liquid and vapour phase during post-entrapment cooling.Upon subsequent heating their internal pressures do not increase significantly until after homogenisation to a single phase occurs and hence they do not decrepitate"prematurely"as gas rich inclusions do. This behaviour is usually regarded as an annoyance in conventional microthermometric homogenisation studies,but can readily be used as an exploration aid to find mineralisation deposited from such gas rich fluids.Decrepitation results on samples from Cowra Ck, NSW,Australia,which have also been microthermometrically measured for CO_2 content,show that amounts of less than 5 mole % CO_2 are easily distinguished by decrepitation and amounts as low as 1 mole % CO_2 may be determinable. Examples of the use of acoustic decrepitation in the study of 6 gold mines in the Shandong and Hebei provinces of China are discussed.     

The Microarea Composition of Garnet and Biotite from the Ji‘an Group in Tonghua District and Its Significance as an Indicator of Metamorphic P—T—t Path

The garnet(Grt)and biotite(Bt) from gneisses of the Ji‘an Group are characterized by diffusion zoning at the rim,but equilibrium composition of metamorphic peak is usually remained in extensive interior area.Garnet with growth zoning is also found in the kyanite zone.In the light of microarea compositional variation of Grt and Bt,the temperature and pressure at the progressive,peak and post-peak metamorphic stages are determined by correctly using Grt Bt thermometer and GASP barometer.On this basis,a counterclockwise P-T-t path can be constructed,which reflects the closing process of an ensialic rift belt in this region during the Early Proterozoic.     

Crustal Structure of the Chuan-Dian Block Revealed by Deep Seismic Sounding and its Implications for the Outward Expansion of the East Tibetan Plateau

The Chuan-Dian Block (CDB) is located in the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, with a complex geological structure and active regional faults. The present tectonic condition with strong crustal deformation is closely related to the ongoing collision of the India and Eurasia plates since 65 Ma. The study of the crustal structure of this area is key to revealing the evolution and deep geodynamics of the lateral collision zone of the Tibetan Plateau. Deep seismic sounding is the most efficient method with which to unravel the velocity structure of the whole crust. Since the 1980s, 19 deep seismic sounding profiles have been captured within the CDB area. In this study, we systematically integrate the research results of the 19 profiles in this area, then image the 3D crustal velocity, by sampling with a 5 km spacing and 2D/3D Kriging interpolation. The results show the following. (1) The Moho depth in the study area deepens from 30 km in the south to 66 km in the north, whereas there is no apparent variation from west to east. The Pn wave velocity is higher in stable tectonic units, such as 7.95 km/s in the Lanping-Simao block and 7.94 km/s in the western margin of the Yangtze block, than in active or mobile tectonic units, such as 7.81 km/s in the Baoshan block, 7.72 km/s in the Tengchong block and 7.82 km/s in the Zhongdian block. (2) The crustal nature of the Tengchong block, the northern Lanping-Simao block and the Zhongdian block reflects a type of orogenic belt, having relatively strong tectonic activities, whereas the crustal nature of the central Lanping-Simao block and the western margin of the Yangtze block represents a type of platform. The different features of the upper-middle crust velocity, Moho depth and Pn wave velocity to both sides of the Red River fault zone and the Xianshuihe fault zone, reflect that they are clearly ultra-crustal. (3) Based on the distribution of the low velocity zones in the crust, the crustal material of the Tibetan Plateau is flowing in a NW–SE direction to the north of 26°N and to the west of 101°E, then diverting to flowing eastwards to the east of 101°E.     

花岗岩中矿物相变的物性特征

本文通过对花岗岩弹性波速度、低频内耗和声发射随温度变化的实验研究，得出如下结论：波速和杨氏模具随温度的升高逐渐下降，到α-β相变点附近，波速和模量下降的梯度明显增大，并在此获得了标示石英相变的内耗峰。同时在相变点附近出现了声发射率的第二个高峰。     

不同含水率砂岩单轴压缩力学特性及波速法损伤

为了探究不同含水率砂岩单轴压缩下力学特性及损伤变化情况,首先对5种不同含水率砂岩进行静态单轴压缩实验,获得其物理力学参数;而后利用超声波检测仪测量该5种不同含水率砂岩的波速,将该批次砂岩加载到80%峰值强度后卸载到0,测量此时砂岩声波波速,利用声波法定义损伤,研究含水率对砂岩损伤的影响。结果表明:单轴压缩下,砂岩的峰值强度及弹性模量随含水率升高逐渐降低,而峰值应变变化呈相反趋势;总功及弹性能随含水率增加而下降,耗散能随含水率增加而增大。实验前声波波速随含水率升高逐渐减小,实验后声波波速随含水率升高而下降,且下降趋势较实验前更迅速;砂岩的残余塑性变形和内部损伤均随含水率升高逐渐增大。研究结果可为现场岩石损伤测试提供依据。      

遇水冷却的高温大理岩力学与波动特性分析

岩石经历高温作用冷却后工程特性的变化情况,直接影响着地下深部空间及资源的开发与利用、核废料的存储以及突发性高温灾害后地下工程的稳定性评价。以大理岩为研究对象,对遇水冷却和自然冷却后的高温岩样进行单轴压缩试验和声波测试,分析和比较岩样在不同状态下峰值强度、弹性模量、衰减系数、纵波波速和主频的变化情况。结果表明：随着温度的不断升高,遇水冷却高温大理岩的峰值强度、弹性模量和纵波波速总体上均呈现减小趋势;低于400 ℃时,随着温度的升高,衰减系数逐渐增大,主频逐渐减小;但高于400 ℃时,随着温度的升高,衰减系数和主频并未完全呈现单调递增或递减趋势,出现了高温拐点;在经历相同高温作用后,遇水冷却大理岩的峰值强度、弹性模量和主频均低于自然冷却,而纵波波速、衰减系数均高于自然冷却。研究结果可以为遇水冷却的高温岩石工程性状的检测和稳定性的评价提供参考,对经历高温作用的岩石冷却方式的选择具有指导意义。     

升温速率对高温作用后砂岩的宏细观性质影响

砂岩受到高温影响后,宏细观性质会发生不同程度的变化,400 ℃ 和1 000 ℃ 是砂岩宏细观性质变化的两个重要节点。为进一步研究升温速率对高温砂岩物理性质、力学特性以及内部微观破裂的影响,以350 ℃和 950 ℃为目标温度,开展了不同升温速率下砂岩的单轴压缩试验,单轴压缩全程采用声发射监测,采用扫描电镜分析了砂岩破坏后的细观形貌。研究结果表明：经不同升温速率处理后,350 ℃砂岩的质量、体积、密度以及纵波波速变化较小;950 ℃砂岩的质量、密度及纵波波速显著降低,体积明显增大,且升温速率越高变化率越小。350 ℃砂岩的应力−应变曲线、应力−体积应变曲线、抗压强度及弹性模量受升温速率的影响较小;950 ℃ 下砂岩试样应力−应变曲线随升温速率的增加向上偏移,抗压强度和弹性模量则先增加后达到恒定。350 ℃ 及 950 ℃砂岩的声发射振铃累计数都有随升温速率增大而减小的趋势,950 ℃ 下升温速率为1 ℃/min 时砂岩的振铃累计数最大,突发性声发射活动区域最多。对不同升温速率砂岩进行扫描电镜分析发现,升温速率对350 ℃ 砂岩的微观形貌影响较小,950 ℃ 砂岩试件则会随着升温速率的下降出现微裂纹和微孔隙数量增多、体积扩大的情况。     

高温作用后花岗岩单轴压缩下变形破坏特征研究

本文采用TAW 2000伺服三轴试验机及声发射检测设备,对高温作用后的花岗岩在25~650℃单轴压缩下的声发射特征进行试验研究,分别分析了高温作用后的花岗岩纵波波速、最大强度及振铃计数随时间的变化规律。研究结果表明:花岗岩的纵波波速和最大强度随着温度的升高而下降,当温度超过500℃时,纵波波速和最大强度下降幅度最大,可见花岗岩的阈值温度为500℃左右。高温作用后的花岗岩在加载过程中始终伴随声发射信号,并且与应力-时间曲线具有较好的对应关系,不同温度作用后的花岗岩声发射活动程度不同,温度越高,声发射活动愈强烈。500℃前花岗岩试样主要以劈裂破坏为主,温度达到500℃,花岗岩试样以剪切破坏为主,高温导致花岗岩试样内部结构发生改变,试样内部的裂纹逐渐发生扩展、贯通,最终发生破坏。     

不同损伤程度下岩石力学参数变化的声波测试

声波波速变化可有效表征岩体损伤程度。通过对岩样进行人工预损,利用声波检测标定岩样的不同损伤程度,然后通过三轴压缩试验来研究不同损伤程度下岩石的力学特性,建立了声波速度下降幅度与岩体力学参数变化幅度间的关系。研究表明,当岩样的声波速度下降5%～8%时,黏聚力c值降低15%～25%,内摩擦角? 值则升高14%～32%,因此,用声波速度的下降幅度来描述岩体参数的变化是可行的。根据现场实测的岩体损伤区内的声波速度的变化值,可以从一定程度上估计岩体参数的跌落情况,从而更进一步地说明损伤区内岩体的承载力。     

人工冻土声波参数试验研究

用ＳＹＣ－２型声波探测仪，对取自淮南矿区井下冻粘土，冻砂土进行了测定。其声波纵横波速振幅衰减系数及动弹模与冻土温度、含水量、容重的关系均用于幂指数形式较好地描述。其中容波速，动弹模及振衰减的影响最大；其次为温度、含水量；冻土振幅度衰减系数对其物理参数变化的敏感性大于波速。另外还研究了冻粘土与冻砂土怕波特性差异、截载大小及加载时间对冻土怕特性影响。     

注采参数对松辽盆地干热岩物理力学及波动特征的影响

为探究注采参数对松辽盆地干热岩物理力学及波动特征的影响,对不同注采参数下高温遇水冷却后花岗岩进行纵、横波波速测试试验和抗压强度试验。分别考虑注采参数（岩样温度、水温、高温遇水循环次数） 与岩样物理力学特征（外观形态、峰值强度、弹性模量、泊松比）、波动特征（纵、横波波速） 的关联性,建立不同注采参数下力学特征与波动特征拟合曲线,并研究搁置过程中不同岩样温度、不同水温条件下岩体物理力学及波动特征变化规律。研究发现：（1） 搁置初期,岩样温度越高,质量、纵、横波波速、弹性模量降幅越大;水温升高,质量、纵、横波波速、弹性模量降幅先增大后减小。（2） 对采热过程中岩体物理力学及波动特征影响由大到小的注采参数依次为靶区温度、注水循环次数、注水温度。提升岩样温度、增加注水循环次数,岩样力学与波动特征均逐渐下降,提高注水温度变化规律与其相反;经历600℃高温,岩样纵波波速、横波波速、峰值强度、弹性模量降幅分别达到53.44%、58.02%、66.56%、79.84%,高温遇水循环5 次 后降幅依次达到33.61%、33.63%、34.22%、56%。（3） 影响岩样力学与波动特征关联性的注采参数由大到小依次为岩样温度、高温遇水循环次数、水温。此研究能够为松辽盆地热采注采参数的选取提供一定参考。     

Impact of internal waves on the acoustic field at a coastal station off Paradeep,east coast of India

Internal Wave (IW) characteristics and the impact of IW on acoustic field have been studied utilizing the hourly time series of temperature and salinity data collected at a coastal site off Paradeep (north Bay of Bengal) during 24–25 October 2008. The IW characteristics, viz. period (t _per ), velocity (C _vel ), wavelength (L), and wave numbers (k), are found to be 2.133–34.72 h, 0.135 km h⁻¹, 0.37–6.2 km and 2.70–0.16 cycles km⁻¹, respectively. The semi-diurnal tidal forces are predominant than diurnal as well as at other frequencies and its contribution is about 64% towards the total potential energy (E ₀ = 3.34 J m⁻²). Sound velocity perturbations with space and time in the presence of IW field are examined from Garrettt-Munk (GM) model. Transmission loss anomaly for optimized source-receiver configuration at the depth of 53 m and range of 9 km has been computed from acoustic modelling. The loss in the acoustic transmission is found to be 38.4 dB in the presence of low-frequency IW field.