Acoustic Emission Characterization of Failure Modes in GFRP Laminates Under Mode I Delamination

In order to design structural components using composite materials a deep understanding of the material behaviour and its failure mechanisms is necessary. To create a better understanding of the initiation, growth and interaction of the different types of damage, damage monitoring during mechanical loading is very important. To this direction, AE is a powerful non destructive technique for real time monitoring of damage development in materials and structures which has been used successfully for the identification of damage mechanisms in composite structures under quasi static and dynamic-cycle loading. In this present work, pure resin plate and GFRP composite laminates with stacking sequence of [0⁰]₆, are fabricated using Hand lay-up method. During the layup a Teflon tape of width 45 mm is kept in the mid plane of the laminate which serves as an initiator for delamination during loading. As per ASTM STD D5528 01 DCB (Double Cantilever Beam) specimens are cut out from the laminates and are subjected to tensile test in the transverse direction along with acoustic emission monitoring. While loading, Markings are made on the sides of the specimen to track the crack front using a magnifying lens. Parametric analysis is performed on the AE data obtained during crack propagation to discriminate the failure modes. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) enabled the calculation of frequency content of each damage mechanism. Further STFFT analysis is performed on a portion of the waveforms representing the dominant frequency content pertaining to each damage mechanism.     

Acoustic Emission as a Tool for Damage Identification and Characterization in Glass Reinforced Cross Ply Laminates

Loading of cross-ply laminates leads to the activation of distinct damage mechanisms, such as matrix cracking, delaminations between successive plies and fibre rupture at the final stage of loading. This study deals with the investigation of the failure of cross ply composites by acoustic emission (AE). Broadband AE sensors monitor the elastic waves originating from different sources of failure in coupons of this material during a tensile loading-unloading test. The cumulative number of AE activity, and other qualitative indices based on the waveforms shape, were well correlated to the sustained load and mechanical degradation as expressed by the gradual decrease of elastic modulus. AE parameters indicate the succession of failure mechanisms within the composite as the load increases. The proposed methodology based on Acoustic Emission for the identification of the damage stage of glass reinforced cross ply laminates is an initial step which may provide insight for the study of more complex laminations.     

Damage Classification of Sandwich Composites Using Acoustic Emission Technique and k-means Genetic Algorithm

In this study acoustic emission (AE) technique was used for monitoring mode I delamination test of sandwich composites. Since, during mode I delamination test various damage mechanisms appear, their classification is of major importance. Hence, integration of \(k\) -means algorithm and genetic algorithm was applied as an efficient clustering method to discriminate different failure modes. Performing primary experiments to find the relationship between AE parameters and damage mechanisms, the AE signals of obtained clusters were assigned to distinct damage mechanisms. Also, the dominance of damage mechanisms was determined based on the distribution of AE signals in different clusters. Finally SEM observation was employed to verify obtained results. The results indicate the efficiency of the proposed method in damage classification of sandwich composites.     

Damage Monitoring of an Historical Masonry Building by the Acoustic Emission Technique

Acoustic Emission (AE) of the materials that are subject to stress and strain states is a methodology for non-destructive investigation, originally applied to industrial steel structures. Here it is proposed by the authors for identifying the damage in masonry buildings. This experimental method was used to monitor the masonry structure of an historical building, “Casa Capello”, located in the centre of the Rivoli Municipality (near Turin, Italy). This house, built on pre-existing 14th century foundations, was thoroughly restructured at the end of the 18th century and has recently undergone restoration and enlargement works. Non-destructive AE tests were carried out on a few masonry portions of the building in order to evaluate and define the development of the cracking phenomena which had been observed in a number of structural parts after the collapse of a breast wall on the down hill side of the building. With the measurement system adopted, entailing no loading or invasive procedures, it proved possible to predict the arrest of crack growth and the concomitant onset of a new stability condition.     

Damage Model and Progressive Failure Analyses for Filament Wound Composite Laminates

Recent improvements in manufacturing processes and materials properties associated with excellent mechanical characteristics and low weight have made composite materials very attractive for application on civil aircraft structures. However, even new designs are still very conservative, because the composite failure phenomenon is very complex. Several failure criteria and theories have been developed to describe the damage process and how it evolves, but the solution of the problem is still open. Moreover, modern filament winding techniques have been used to produce a wide variety of structural shapes not only cylindrical parts, but also “flat” laminates. Therefore, this work presents the development of a damage model and its application to simulate the progressive failure of flat composite laminates made using a filament winding process. The damage model was implemented as a UMAT (User Material Subroutine), in ABAQUS^TM Finite Element (FE) framework. Progressive failure analyses were carried out using FE simulation in order to simulate the failure of flat filament wound composite structures under different loading conditions. In addition, experimental tests were performed in order to identify parameters related to the material model, as well as to evaluate both the potential and the limitations of the model. The difference between numerical and the average experimental results in a four point bending set-up is only 1.6 % at maximum load amplitude. Another important issue is that the model parameters are not so complicated to be identified. This characteristic makes this model very attractive to be applied in an industrial environment.     

基于小波变换的镁碳质耐火材料受压损伤声发射特征分析

运用声发射(Acoustic emission,AE)技术及基于小波变换的信号处理方法研究镁碳质(MgO-C)耐火材料受压损伤机制。通过AE技术检测材料受压损伤的声发射信号,采用小波变换方法对信号进行分解,运用小波能量系数,结合不同损伤相的物理特性,寻找与特定损伤机理相关的频率特征。结果显示,AE信号的能量主要集中在两种频率范围内,说明材料此时表现出两种不同的主导性损伤机制,为判别镁碳质耐火材料受压损伤机制提供了一种有效途径。     

基于声发射检测技术的PE/PE自增强复合材料破损机理分析

用声发射(AE)技术研究了聚乙烯自增强复合材料的拉伸损伤与断裂行为.宽带传感器记录了不同角度纤维铺层的复合材料试样在拉伸破坏过程中的声发射信号,用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)观察了试样的几种典型的损伤破坏断面,对比分析了不同类型的损伤机制.实验分析表明,拉伸过程中破坏机制对声发射信号的特征具有显著影响,不同损伤模式的信号频谱特征存在明显的差异.声发射检测能有效提取热塑性复合材料损伤破坏信息,在材料的结构损伤主动监测中有良好的应用潜力.     

Pattern Recognition Method for the Source Location of Acoustic Emission Generated During the Damage of Hydraulic Concrete

Abstract: To overcome the disadvantages of current acoustic emission (AE) source location methods, such as classical approaches based on times of arrival and artificial neural networks based on AE signal features, support vector machines (SVM)‐based models have been employed to recognise AE source regions in structures. However, in some circumstances, it seems that a more accurate positioning of AE sources is needed. This study concerns the spatial three‐dimensional (3D) positioning (i.e. coordinates) for damages in hydraulic concrete structures using the least squares SVM (LS‐SVM) regression with AE signal features. The data of artificial discrete AE sources were acquired from simulated AE events on a hydraulic concrete specimen. Various combinations of signal features were chosen to adequately excavate effective information and to obtain the multi‐output LS‐SVM regression model of the best performance. The training and testing results show that the proposed model can realise the accurate spatial 3D positioning of damages in hydraulic concrete structures in laboratory situations and reduce human factors (e.g. judgment of AE propagation velocity, etc.) in the AE source location process. Meanwhile, the work remaining in taking this idea to a practical implementation was discussed.     

声发射技术在纤维增强复合材料损伤检测和破坏过程分析中的应用研究进展

声发射作为一种无损检测技术,具有主动性、几何形状不敏感性、即时性和特征性等优点。声发射技术通过建立复合材料损伤和破坏特征与声发射信号间的关联,分辨复合材料随加载过程的各种失效模式,结合加载过程中的应力应变曲线,从而获得失效机制。本文对声发射检测技术在纤维增强复合材料研究中的应用和分析方法进行了综述,并对其在复合材料领域的应用趋势进行了展望。     

涂层疲劳损伤声发射特征参数及损伤机理

使用超音速等离子喷涂设备在1045钢基体上制备了铁基合金涂层。以球盘式接触疲劳试验机为平台,研究了涂层接触疲劳损伤过程中声发射特征参数的变化规律,并分析了涂层的接触疲劳损伤机理。结果表明,在转速为2500r/min和应力水平为1.58GPa实验条件下,点蚀是涂层的主要失效形式,表现为在涂层磨痕轨迹范围内出现大量的点蚀坑,点蚀坑深度为20～30μm。涂层表面粗糙的微凸体与轴承球滚压接触产生黏着磨损,以及涂层、磨粒、滚动轴承三者形成三体磨料磨损是点蚀失效产生的主要原因。声发射幅值、有效值(Root Mean Square,RMS)、能量、计数和平均频率对涂层表面粗糙微凸体去除、弹塑性变形、裂纹萌生、裂纹稳定扩展和失稳扩展过程比较敏感,并且在不同的疲劳损伤阶段具有不同的信号反馈特点。     

基于改进遗传算法的C/SiC拉伸损伤声发射模式识别

采用层次聚类及基于改进遗传算法的无监督模式识别方法,对2D-C/SiC复合材料常温拉伸试验过程的声发射数据进行分析,结合试样断口的扫描电镜(SEM)照片,得到拉伸过程中5类损伤模式及其典型声发射特征参数。通过对各类损伤的能量分布、累计事件数和累计能量的分析,研究C/SiC复合材料的损伤演化过程,发现其过程可分为基体微裂纹和界面失效为主的初始损伤阶段、基体微裂纹停滞导致层间剥离及纤维失效占主导地位的裂纹饱和阶段、基体长裂纹和界面失效为主的损伤积累发展阶段和纤维束大量失效的宏观断裂阶段。     

基于小波分析的结构损伤检测

损伤结构的动力特性具有局部时变的特征，小波变换在时域和频域都具有表征信号局部特征的能力，小波包分析利用可以伸缩和平移的可变视窗能够聚焦到信号的任意细节，因此可以对损伤结构的非线性动力特性能进行有效的分析。提出运用小波分析提取结构损伤特征向量的方法和基本原理，并进一步用神经网络进行损伤位置和程度的检测。文章通过一个两层框架的模型对小波神经网络和传统的BP网络的损伤识别精度作了对比。研究表明，小波神经网络的抗噪声能力较强，损伤识别的效果更好，运用小波神经网络进行结构损伤识别精度要优于传统的BP网络。     

Damage Characterization of Thermal Barrier Coatings by Acoustic Emission and Thermography

Thermal barrier coatings allow increasing the operating temperature and efficiency of land‐, sea‐, or air‐based turbines. As failure of the coating may result in serious damage of the turbine, reliable estimation of its lifetime is essential. To assess the lifetime, cyclic tests are conceived to combine thermal loading by heating the surface of the coating with laser irradiation and nondestructive methods for damage determination. Using laser irradiation allows a high reproducibility of the thermal load. The temperature of the sample surface during thermal loading is determined by an infrared‐camera which also enables the possibility to detect damage in the coating via thermography. Additionally, four acoustic sensors, attached to the experimental setup, are used to detect damage in the sample and determine the source of acoustic events. Results of acoustic emission correlate well with thermographic images that visualize the formation and evolution of damage through delaminations in the samples.     

Gabor变换在声发射信号特征提取中的应用

机械故障或损伤引发的声发射(AE)信号由高频突发脉冲信号和长周期准平稳噪声信号组成,Gabor变换特有的时频局域化特性适于描述其时频特征.通过分析典型AE信号及其特征提取,将Gabor变换引入到声发射故障诊断领域,并提出了AE信号的Gaber变换分析法.通过理论分析和仿真,比较了Gabor变换和Wigner-Ville分布(WVD)提取AE信号特征的效果.研究了Gabor变换在强噪声背景下的抑噪能力,并给出了AE信号Gabor变换窗长的选取方法,从而有效克服了Gabor变换只用一个固定窗分析多尺度信号的缺陷.将Gabor变换用于声发射检测的滚动轴承损伤类型及部件的识别,诊断结果十分直观、清晰、准确.仿真分析和实验研究均表明了Gabor变换能有效提取AE信号的特征,为AE信号的波形分析开辟了一条有效的途径.     

Broadband Laser-Ultrasonic Spectroscopy for Quantitative Characterization of Porosity Effect on Acoustic Attenuation and Phase Velocity in CFRP Laminates

This work aims at applying the method of broadband laser-ultrasonic spectroscopy for quantitative evaluation of the effect of isolated dispersed voids and additional extended interply delaminations on the acoustic attenuation and on the phase velocity in CFRP laminates. This method is based on the laser thermoelastic generation of broadband reference pulses of longitudinal ultrasonic waves in the specially designed source of ultrasound. The high-sensitivity piezoelectric transducer is used to detect these pulses propagating normal to the fiber plies in composite specimens. The laminate specimens investigated have different total porosity levels up to 10.5 % determined by the X-ray computer tomography. The resonance peak of the attenuation coefficient and the corresponding jump of the phase velocity are observed governed by the periodic layered structure of the specimens. The absolute maximum and the frequency bandwidth of the resonance attenuation peak depend on the total porosity level formed by the predominant type of imperfections, either of isolated spheroidal voids entrapped in epoxy layers or of extended interply delaminations. With an increase of the specimen’s total porosity dispersion of the phase velocity becomes noticeable in the low-frequency band before the resonance jump. The derived empirical relations between the total porosity level and the parameters of the frequency dependencies of the ultrasonic attenuation coefficient and of the phase velocity can be used for rapid quantitative characterization of the structure of CFRP laminates subject to different fabrication conditions.     

复合材料损伤失效的声发射检测研究进展

综述了复合材料损伤失效的声发射检测研究进展,从损伤源定位及损伤模式的识别与分类两方面进行了介绍。在损伤源定位方面模态声发射相比模式识别更有效,在损伤模式的分类方面模式识别技术更加有效,且人工神经网络及小波神经网络在复合材料声发射方面的研究较多。另外,介绍了模糊模式识别技术用于声发射信号分类及聚类的研究情况,根据复合材料声发射信号复杂重叠性的特点,模糊理论结合模式识别技术可以进一步实现复合材料声发射信号更有效的分析。     

基于Hilbert-Huang变换识别柴油机缸盖阻尼比

实验敲击某型12150柴油机缸盖,采集振动加速度信号。利用经验模式分解提取了振动加速度信号中主要频率成分对应的模态响应衰减分量,对各分量进行希尔伯特变换和最小二乘法拟合,得到了缸盖系统的模态频率及阻尼比。将计算结果用于缸盖系统的瞬态动力学仿真,说明利用该方法计算的缸盖系统模态频率及阻尼比合理,能够满足缸盖系统动力学研究的需要。     

声发射技术在工程结构疲劳损伤监测中的应用和展望

疲劳失效是工程结构和材料科学研究领域都十分关注的问题。研究疲劳损伤机制对于解决工程结构疲劳失效问题是很重要的。应用断裂力学理论研究工程结构的疲劳问题已取得了显著的成果，随着声发射技术研究的深入，将二者结合起来必将成为疲劳问题研究的更有效方法之一。阐述了国内外采用声发射技术对工程结构疲劳裂纹损伤监测中的声发射源机制状况的研究，展望了声发射技术结合断裂力学在该领域的应用前景。     

涂层接触疲劳损伤过程中的声发射小波分析

采集铁基合金涂层在不同接触疲劳损伤阶段的声发射信号,并采用dB10基本小波对其进行5层小波分解和重构,分析了疲劳损伤声发射信号的波形和频率特征。结果表明:裂纹萌生阶段的原始声发射信号以连续型为主,裂纹的稳定扩展阶段以混合型为主,裂纹的失稳扩展阶段以突发型为主;通过小波变换实现了将疲劳损伤声发射信号与干扰波分离,获得了高信噪比的疲劳损伤特征信息;在不同的疲劳损伤阶段,声发射信号的频率分布各不相同。随着疲劳损伤的加剧,各层的波形幅值呈增大的趋势,并且疲劳损伤频率分布范围也更加的广泛。     

小波变换在声发射信号特征参数检测中的应用

本文论述了小波变换在声发射信号的事件计数特版在数检测中应用的理论和方法,用小波变换来检测声发射信号的事件计数特征参数,其准确率与域值电平的取值在大小无关,从而可大大提高声发射信号特征参数检测的准确度,该方法可用于旋转机械（特别是大型汽轮发电机组）的碰磨故障和裂纹故障的检测。