Linking environmental and economic sustainability in establishing standards for wastewater re-use in Israel.

Israel is one of the world's leaders in agricultural re-use of wastewater, currently re-using over 60% of produced wastewater. The effects of arid climate, intensive irrigated agriculture and limited water resources make re-use necessary to conserve fresh water for domestic use. Quality standards for wastewater re-use are needed to protect public health and prevent environmental and agricultural damage. This paper examines the environmental and economic sustainability of the proposed upgrade of wastewater quality standards. A tertiary treatment standard was proposed, but has not been approved due to objections from local authorities and farmers. An upgrade will require higher treatment costs, which will be divided between farmers and local authorities through the pricing of the wastewater. Farmers oppose the upgrade because they will not be able to pay higher prices for wastewater, which they use to irrigate low-profit crops. If the price is too high, these farmers may be forced out of business and a substantial reduction in cultivated lands may result. If the price is too low, the poorer local authorities may not be able to comply with the standards, and may discharge improperly treated wastewater, causing environmental damage. A successful policy balances the needs for environmental protection with the economic realities of farmers and local authorities and may require compensation for local authorities or farmers in order to achieve maximum environmental protection.     

Application of a membrane bioreactor for the treatment of low loaded domestic wastewater for water re-use.

This paper describes the demonstrative scale application of a membrane biological reactor (MBR) for low loaded domestic wastewater with low attitude to biological treatment (carbon/nitrogen approximately 5). The biological process was managed by the automatically controlled alternate cycles allowing for re-use purposes with a remarkable reduction of the operational costs. The global process evaluation revealed the system capability of obtaining high nitrogen removal (effective nitrogen removal of 69%) thanks to its high flexibility related to the hourly loading fluctuation. Moreover, high removal of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) was obtained due to the perfect retention capability of the membranes. In-depth studies were conducted to determine the process behaviour for activated sludge over aeration and with addition of exogenous carbon. Limitation of sludge over aeration and energy savings were observed with a gradient air supplying method. The addition of exogenous carbon (acetic acid up to carbon/nitrogen approximately 9) led to complete nitrogen removal (Ed = 96%) and permitted biological phosphorus uptake. In conclusion, it was been found that the coupled process alternated cycles-MBR had the capacity to remove COD, BOD, N, P and suspended solids, as well as heavy metals and organic micropollutants, resulting in high quality effluent suitable for re-use purposes.     

Oestrogen removal from biological pretreated wastewater within decentralised sanitation and re-use concepts.

Two parallel researches were performed; one focused on the fate of oestrogens in the biological treatment systems within decentralised sanitation and re-use concepts (DESAR), the second related to the development of a suitable specific removal method. A new affinity membrane was developed using antibodies as specific binding sites for hormone removal. It was found that, especially in anaerobic treatment, the core technology in DESAR, the removal is insufficient and therefore an additional separation method is required. The affinity membrane with antibodies was found to be a suitable additional method, though in the current system it only removes one selected compound. Future research will focus on making this method more feasible in practise.     

北方城市给排水中有机锡污染调查研究

首次对我国北方城市给水和污水处理厂丁基锡和一苯基锡的污染状况进行了研究,运用顶空SPME-GC-MS检测方法对水样进行了测定。结果表明,常规给水和污水处理工艺能有效去除一丁基锡(MBT)和二丁基锡(DBT),但对三丁基锡(TBT)和一苯基锡(MPT)的去除效果较差。给水处理厂中有机锡污染存在季节性变化,从5月到9月污染是逐步减轻的,其中原水中MBT,DBT,TBT和MPT最高浓度分别为111.4 ngSn/L,129.5 ngSn/L,29.4 ngSn/L和186.3 ngSn/L,管网水中只有5月份检测到29.4 ngSn/L的TBT和168.7 ngSn/L的MPT,其他月份没有检测到有机锡。此外,污水处理厂也存在一定的有机锡污染,主要污染物为DBT和TBT,最高浓度分别为108.9ngSn/L和59.8 ngSn/L,偶尔也检测到较高浓度的MPT。     

21世纪初期沿淮、淮北地区的缺水形势与缓解对策

针对淮北地区水资源相对短缺的实际情况，本文在充分考虑各种可能的节水措施和对当地水资源进行挖潜的基础上，根据初步分析的用水发展趋势和生态环境的用水要求，初步研究了该地区未来10～30年的缺水形势，研究并提出了缓解缺水的多种可能途径和措施。     

Membrane bioreactor application in wastewater re-use from the effluent of Bali primary WWTP, northern Taiwan.

Two MBR pilot systems were constructed and tested in the Bali Primary WWTP. The pilot study shows that two MBR systems, i.e. the Green-MenBio system (MBR-1) and the Bio-MF system (MBR-2), can both fulfill the requirement of wastewater reclamation standard. The MBR-2 system is more economical compared with MBR-1 system. The cost of US dollars 0.10-0.16/m3 is estimated to reclaim the effluent of primary WWTP in Taiwan. The Bali Primary WWTP has the capacity of 1,320,000 cmd which is the biggest in Taiwan. The domestic wastewater of partial Taipei City and Taipei County are collected and transported to the Bali Primary WWTP. The effluent of the Bali Primary WWTP is then discharged into the ocean through two 3.8 m marine outfalls. The AO processes are installed in both MBR systems. More than 90% of the NH3-N can be removed through the AO and membrane processes. The outflow of the MBR systems (without RO) can reach the quality of COD <30 mg/l, BOD <10 mg/l, SS <5 mg/l, NH3-N <3 mg/L. The outflow of the MBR system is proposed to transport 40 km south to the Taoyuan County where four new industrial parks are to be constructed. Part of the reclaimed water is to be used on irrigation and another portion is to be sent to the industries after RO treatment.     

沿淮淮北水资源情势及缺水对策研究

本文分析了沿淮淮北地区水资源情势及开发利用现状与问题,对区域水资源进行了三次平衡分析,提出了充分利用当地地表水和外调水逐步置换城市超采深层地下水的思路,即：只有尽快实施引江济淮及淮水北调、淮水西调调水工程,方能从根本上解决该区水资源日益短缺问题。     

新乡市水资源紧缺状况及对策

新乡市水资源紧缺 ,加之不合理的开发、盲目开采 ,导致水资源污染加剧 ,水质不断恶化 ,从而使本来就稀缺的水资源更加紧缺。通过对新乡市当前水资源紧缺状况的分析 ,提出要强化水资源的优化配置 ;大力推广节水技术 ;加紧综合治理污染河道 ,实施工程引水措施     

滦县水资源短缺及可持续利用

结合本地水资源和国民经济各行业发展需要的现状,对水资源供需关系进行分析,揭示水资源短缺程度,提出对水资源加强管理和充分利用等措施.同时,为县级水资源可持续利用提供决策.     

东丰县缺水问题的原因与对策

1　概况东丰县地处松辽流域分水岭 ,是“五山一水四分田”的半山区 ,属寒温带大陆性季风半湿润气候 ,水资源时空分布不均。多年平均降水量为6 6 3 6 7ｍｍ ,多年河川径流量为 3 98亿ｍ3,水资源总量为 3 72亿ｍ3,其中地下水重复量为0 83亿ｍ3,人均占有水资源量为 93 9ｍ3,占全国人均水资源量的 3 8%,占全省人均水资源量的 6 3 %。亩均占有水资源量为 2 6 0ｍ3,是全国亩均水量的 1 5 8%,是全省亩均水量的 3 7 2 %。无论人均占有量 ,还是亩均占有量都低于全国、全省平均水平 ,属资源缺水型地区。东丰县的水利工程大部分都是在 2 0世纪 6 0…     

南水北调中线工程供水区缺水状况

为了配合南水北调工程论证审查工作，进一步研究中线供水范围尤其是京，津，冀地区的缺水情况，长江委组织沿线京，津，冀，豫４省对中线供水范围内的水质资源供需关系，采用较新资料进行复核。在复核中充分考虑了技术进步，产业结构调整，节水措施，污水回用以及水资源合理调配等各种因素。     

科学利用雨洪资源是解决北方地区缺水问题的重要举措

河北省是面临人口、环境双重压力的极度资源性缺水地区，人均、亩均水资源量仅为全国的1/7和1/9，且时空分布极不均匀，70％～80％的降水集中在汛期3个月，大量的水资源以洪水形式出现。解决水资源匮乏和水环境恶化问题，是我省21世纪人口、环境、经济、社会持续协调发展的一个关键性问题。1充分利用雨洪资源是人与洪水和谐共处的重要手段　　暴雨洪水是对人类威胁最大的一种自然灾害，但它同时又具有对资源、环境、生态等有利的多种功能。所以趋利避害，充分利用雨洪资源，是减轻洪水灾害，增加可用水资源量，实现人与洪水和谐共处的有效…     

Nutrient removal process selection for planning and design of large wastewater treatment plant upgrade needs.

A protocol to select nutrient removal technologies that can achieve low nutrient effluents (total nitrogen (TN) < 5 mg/L and total phosphorus (TP) < 0.5 mg/L) was developed for different wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) sizes based on the research conducted during a Water Environment Research Foundation funded project. The adaptable protocol includes technology and cost assessment of feasible (pre-screened) nutrient removal technologies that are being successfully implemented at full scale. The information collected from the full scale nutrient removal plants to develop this protocol includes design, operational, performance, and cost data through a direct survey of plants, and published data. The protocol includes a "technology threshold" approach consisting of Tier I (TN < 5.0 mg/L; TP < 0.5 mg/L) and Tier II (TN < 3.0 mg/L; TP < 0.1 mg/L) effluent nutrient levels for different plant sizes. A very large WWTP (1,250,000 m(3)/day flow) in Chicago, Illinois, USA adapted this protocol for master planning and design of future nutrient removal facilities based on plant and site specific criteria.     

Optimization analysis of decentralised sanitation and re-use system.

With the application of system dynamics, a dynamic nonlinear model reflecting the relationship between decentralised water use and reclaimed water supply and demand has been established. Through a system analysis, the model has been applied to a small residential district to predict and analyse the situation of future use of fresh water, demand and supply of re-used water, and treatment scale of reclaimed water. It is illustrated in this paper that wastewater decentralised treatment and re-use can decrease the consumption of fresh water without lowering the standard of living water for the district residents. On this basis, a rational scale and construction time of the decentralised sanitation and re-use system have been determined. Also, the paper predicts the influencing factors of the increasing water cost and changes in consumers' acceptability to re-use water in the decentralised sanitation and re-use system.     

Demonstration of a tool for automatic learning and re-use of knowledge in the activated sludge process.

Wastewater treatment plant operators encounter complex operational problems related to the activated sludge process and usually respond to these by applying their own intuition and by taking advantage of what they have learnt from past experiences of similar problems. However, previous process experiences are not easy to integrate in numerical control, and new tools must be developed to enable re-use of plant operating experience. The aim of this paper is to investigate the usefulness of a case-based reasoning (CBR) approach to apply learning and re-use of knowledge gained during past incidents to confront actual complex problems through the IWA/COST Benchmark protocol. A case study shows that the proposed CBR system achieves a significant improvement of the benchmark plant performance when facing a high-flow event disturbance.     

Safety of treated water for re-use purposes--comparison of filtration and disinfection processes.

A study was conducted on the distribution of pollutants in treated wastewater and the its safety for re-use purposes. Based on the results of a series of tertiary treatment experiments, the effects of three filtration processes, i.e. coagulation-filtration, ozonation-biological activated carbon filtration (O3-BAC) and ultrafiltration (UF), and two chemical disinfection processes, i.e. chlorination and ozonation, on the safety of water re-use were evaluated. It was found that the concentrations of the main pollutants in the secondary effluent and further filtered water follow a log-normal distribution and, therefore, a log-normal probabilistic function can be used to evaluate the suitability of the treated water for re-use purposes. Among the three filtration processes evaluated, UF is the most effective in turbidity removal but less effective in colour and COD removal, while coagulation-filtration and O3-BAC can ensure a good removal of all these pollutants. Regarding chemical disinfection, although chlorine is very effective in inactivation of coliform bacteria, it can not achieve a substantial decrease in viruses. As ozone is applied, effective virus removal can be achieved.     

中国北方地区水土资源可持续利用对策

通过分析中国北方水土资源的分布特征与开发利用存在的问题 ,提出了北方水土资源可持续利用的对策     

我国缺水风险分布状况及其对策

在对风险理论及水资源风险研究进展回顾与展望的基础上，探讨了水资源短缺风险主导因子的辨识方法，提出了采用缺水率、人均缺水量和缺水边际损失3个指标的缺水风险评价指标体系，采用模糊层次分析评价方法对全国二级水资源分区的缺水风险进行了综合评价。评价结果表明，全国现状情况下有33个二级水资源分区面临着不同程度的水资源短缺风险，必须采取工程和非工程等防范措施和有效调控，方可减轻缺水风险对我国经济社会发展的危害程度。     

中国南方季节性缺水地区水资源合理配置研究

本文运用大系统多目标分析原理,建立了一种以水资源合理利用为目标,综合考虑防洪、供水、河道生态等约束的水资源合理配置模型,并运用大系统“分解协调”原理提出了相应算法。该模型为反映需水部门子系统的公平性,引入了经济学中的基尼系数,针对东江流域枯水期季节性缺水以及由于河道咸潮活动频繁、水体污染严重而造成缺水明显的特点,对该流域水资源进行了合理的配置,得出了满意的水资源合理配置方案,证实了本文模型的可行性。     

西南地区农村工程性缺水成因分析

通过问卷调查、走访民众、实地考察以及与政府有关部门座谈,分析西南地区农村工程性缺水的成因。结果表明西南地区农村工程性缺水主要受喀斯特地貌、土地石漠化、资金紧缺、人才匮乏等因素影响。西南地区农村工程性缺水问题是一个集自然因素、社会因素于一体的较为复杂的问题。提出加强思想教育、引进技术人才、加大资金投入等措施,为解决西南地区农村工程性缺水问题提供参考。