Race of counselor, client sex, cultural mistrust level, and premature termination from counseling among Black clients.

Administered an inventory designed to assess the extent to which they trusted White people to 135 27–41 yr old Black clients as they visited a community mental health center for the 1st time. Equal numbers of Ss were assigned to a Black and White counselor for an intake interview. Analyses of counselor's race, mistrust level, and Ss' sex in relationship to premature termination of counseling showed that significant percentages of shared variance were found for counselors' race and trust level. It is suggested that Black clients who are distrustful of White people should be seen by a Black counselor, at least initially. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor and client racial similarity on the counselor's response patterns and skills.

To test the hypothesis that factors of racial differences may mediate counselor–client interactions in terms of the counselor's attending and expressive response style and the delivery and type appropriateness of responses, 60 graduate level Black and White counselor trainees were asked to counsel both Black and White clients. As hypothesized, Ss' delivery scores and the type appropriateness of responses were significantly better under conditions of racial similarity with the clients. Both Black and White Ss were rated as being more expressive than attending in their response patterns toward Black clients. Findings have implications for counselor–client relationships and professional training programs for psychological counseling in multiracial settings. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-racial psychotherapy: What the therapists say.

41 White and 37 Black psychotherapists with an average of 8.2 yrs' experience completed a 41-item questionnaire regarding psychotherapy with same- and opposite-race clients. White Ss did not experience racial issues in psychotherapy with the same salience that Black Ss did, yet they reported higher levels of subjective distress in cross-racial treatment. This distress focused on negative attitudes of clients, therapists' feelings of not being able to help or confront opposite race clients, or being oversolicitous or too distant with opposite-race clients. Both therapist groups reported equivalent abilities to empathize with opposite-race clients, but Blacks and Whites differed on a number of questions of racial attitudes and stereotyping. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial and attitudinal factors affecting the perceptions of counselors by Black adolescents.

Presented to 247 Black male and female high school students racial and attitudinal information about a hypothetical male or female counselor and asked them to express their perceptions of the counselor. Attitudinal information about a counselor had a stronger effect than racial information on Ss' perception of the counselor: Counselors portrayed as attitudinally similar were rated significantly higher in attractiveness, trustworthiness, expertness, and social attraction than those portrayed as attitudinally dissimilar. Racial information also influenced perceived attractiveness: White counselors were rated higher than Black ones in attractiveness, although there was no difference in ratings of trustworthiness or expertise. White female counselors were perceived as more expert than their Black female counterparts, whereas the ratings of male counselors were not influenced by the racial variable. Implications for counselor–client relationships and the development of mental health services for minority populations are discussed. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of Black students' racial identity attitudes on preferences for counselor's race.

Racial identity attitudes derived from W. E. Cross' (1971) racial identity model and respondents' racial self-designations were used to predict 92 Black university students' preferences for Black and White counselors. Ss completed the Assessment in Career Decision Making Scale, a counselor preference scale, and a racial identity scale. Multiple regression and ANOVA were used to analyze the data. Racial attitudes accounted for a significant percentage of the variance involving preferences for counselor's race. Of the 4 types of attitudes measured (preencounter, encounter, immersion–emersion, and internalization), preencounter attitudes were most strongly associated with a preference for White counselors and a nonacceptance of Black counselors. The other 3 types of attitudes were associated with varying degrees of preference for Black counselors and nonacceptance of White counselors. Racial self-designation (e.g., Black, Negro, Afro-American) was not associated with preferences for either Black or White counselors. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mistrust level and its effects on counseling expectations in Black client-White counselor relationships: An analogue study.

Black clients' high dropout rates from counseling with White counselors are often explained by the clients' lack of trust for Whites. This analogue study examined the effects of cultural mistrust on counseling expectations for Black clients assigned to both Black and White counselors. Subjects completed the Cultural Mistrust Inventory (an inventory designed to measure Blacks' mistrust of Whites) and the Expectations About Counseling questionnaire. In a 2 (subject sex)?×?2 (subject mistrust level)?×?2 (counselor race) factorial design, client mistrust level interacted significantly with counselor race. When assigned to a White instead of a Black counselor, highly mistrustful Blacks expected the counselor to be less accepting, trustworthy, and expert; they also expected less in terms of counseling outcome. We discuss the possible implications of these findings for counseling practice and the need for White counselors to be sensitive to the cultural mistrust issue when working with Black clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Duration, satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness of cross-cultural counseling.

The relationship between cultural dissimilarity and the duration, satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness of counseling was studied in the context of 70 actual treatment dyads that varied as to the race of the counselor and the client (White or non-White). White counselors provided fewer sessions than non-White counselors, and non-White clients expressed lower levels of overall satisfaction with counseling, regardless of counselor race. No differences in counseling effectiveness were observed as measured by counselor and client ratings of perceived relief, understanding, and coping. Relative to other treatment dyads, however, White clients seeing White counselors attributed their change more to counseling than to other, outside factors. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of model's race and sex on interviewees' self-disclosure.

Assigned 48 White college students, 24 of each sex, to 1 of 8 modeling conditions, which varied for model's race (Black or White), sex, and length of disclosure (20 or 60 sec). Ss were exposed to a videotape of a model who disclosed on 10 topics (half favorable and half unfavorable); then they responded to the same 10 topics. Ss' depth of disclosure, speech duration, and number of self-references were not related to model's race, length of disclosure, or to their scores on the Self-Disclosure Questionnaire. However, Ss disclosed at greater depths and for longer durations after observing models of the same sex. Significant negative correlations were found between self-disclosure scores and the Ss' ratings of the importance of a counselor's sex, age, and socioeconomic status for the counseling process. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer acceptance and school-related variables in an integrated junior high school.

Interracial peer acceptance at the junior high school level was related to 9 predictor variables: grade point average (GPA), IQ, attendance, self-concept of academic ability, sex, race, age, years in the school, and classroom racial composition. 322 7th- and 8th-grade students from predominantly lower-middle-class backgrounds were administered modified Syracuse Scales of Human Relations, measuring academic and social acceptance. Analysis of variance results show that White Ss slightly preferred Whites for the satisfaction of their academic and social needs. However, with stepwise multiple regression analysis, race was not a significant predictor variable for academic or social acceptance by White Ss. GPA and sex were the most prominent predictors of acceptance. Black Ss accepted both Black peers and White peers equally for academic interaction but preferred Blacks for social interaction. Race was a significant predictor variable for academic and social acceptance by Black Ss. However, race was secondary to GPA and/or sex for academic acceptance by Black females and Black males. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor race and power base: Effects on attitudes and behavior.

Assessed the effects of expert and referent power bases and counselor race on Ss' attitude and behavior change. 32 White undergraduates who identified themselves as having procrastination and career-planning problems were divided into internal or external groups on the basis of their scores on Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. Four female interviewers, 2 Black and 2 White, portrayed either an expert or referent role and attempted to influence Ss to use a problem-solving process and perform a career-planning activity. Dependent variables included a measure of attitude change, a measure assessing knowledge of the problem-solving process, and 2 behavioral measures. Results show that (a) the roles were perceived as intended, (b) Ss of expert interviewers recalled more of the problem-solving process, and (c) significant interactions of race and role were obtained such that Black-expert and White-referent interviewers were most influential both in attitude and behavior change. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client locus of control, problem perception, and interview behavior.

Administered Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale to 50 21–27 yr old clients at a university counseling center and asked Ss to list all their problems in order of priority. Problems were subsequently classified on an external–internal dimension. Analysis of the relationship of Ss' locus of control (LOC) and interview initiative was based on a subsample of 20 Ss whose initial interview was recorded. Findings show that Ss' LOC was related to the extent to which they assumed initiative and became behaviorally involved in directing the interview process. However, contrary to expectations, counselor control did not moderate this relation. It is suggested that internally oriented clients are more likely to assume initiative in the interview and attempt to redirect the treatment process in a direction preferred by them. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial effects in counseling-like interviews: An experimental analogue.

Examined racial E effects in counseling-like interviews employing the verbal operant-conditioning paradigm. The general objective was to determine whether significant differences in the conditionability of 12 Black and 12 White female college students, as measured by their emission of positive and negative self-reference emotional affect statements, would obtain when the verbal reinforcement was provided by 2 Black and 2 White Es. A postexperimental inquiry assessed Ss' perceptions of the interviews and their level of awareness of the Es' to influence their verbal behavior. While no definitive conclusions were reached, this study demonstrates that the verbal operant-conditioning paradigm can be used to investigate racial effects on verbal behavior in the counseling interview. Through the use of multiple, biracial Es and Ss, this study goes a step further than other verbal operant-conditioning studies that have explored racial E effects. The absence of significant differences in the E-S racial interaction suggests that race, per se, may not be the most important variable in the E-S (or counselor-client) relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accuracy of eyewitness identification in a field setting.

64 White and 9 Black 17–60 yr old clerks working alone in convenience stores were asked by "law interns" to identify from photograph lineups (prepared by the local police department) 2 male customers, one Black and one White, who had been in their store 2 hrs earlier. Ss were able to make correct identifications about one-third of the time. Even when no-guesses were omitted, identifications were correct less than half (46.8%) of the time. There was a substantial relationship between accuracy and Ss' confidence that they were correct. Only slight evidence of an own-race bias in accuracy was found among the Whites. White Ss' ability to identify the Black customer was significantly related to the amount of self-reported cross-racial experiences. The attractiveness and distinctiveness of the customers was related to the frequency of correct identifications, as was the effective size and functional size of the lineups used. Black Ss showed better overall recognition accuracy than did White Ss. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race, class, and the attributional process.

Two experiments examined the process and content of attributional thinking in Black and White children who differed in socioeconomic status (SES). In Exp I, 171 7th graders subdivided into middle-SES Black, middle-SES White, low-SES Black, and low-SES White groups imagined that they succeeded or failed at an examination, with the cause of the outcome specified. Their perceptions of the dimensional properties of causes (locus, stability, and controllability), expectancy for success, teacher evaluation, and affective reactions were reported. Similar judgments were made in Exp II, with 148 of the Ss from Exp I, in response to actual rather than hypothetical success and failure, and Ss' causal attributions for their performance were reported. Analyses revealed that Blacks did not display a less adaptive attributional pattern than did Whites following actual performance, and no differences existed in Ss' understanding of the meaning (dimensional placement) of causes. A linkage between the locus of causes and affect also was documented in all race?×?SES groups. In contrast, race and class differences occurred in Ss' perceptions of predicted stability–expectancy and controllability–evaluation causal linkages. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural mistrust and its effects on expectational variables in Black client-White counselor relationships.

In a previous analog study by C. E. Watkins and F. Terrell (see record 1988-36489-001), it was found that highly mistrustful Blacks assigned to White rather than to Black counselors generally had lower expectations of counseling. To extend this earlier study, we examined the effects of cultural mistrust on Blacks' expectations about counselor credibility and counselor competence and their willingness to see someone like the described counselor for counseling. In a 2 (subject sex)?×?2 (subject mistrust level)?×?2 (counselor race) factorial design, subject mistrust level and counselor race interacted significantly on several dependent variables. In comparison to Blacks low on mistrust, highly mistrustful Blacks regarded the White counselor as less credible and less able to help them with four problem areas: general anxiety, shyness, inferiority feelings, and dating difficulties. The implications of the findings of Black client–White counselor relationships are discussed, and the further need for counselors to be aware of the cultural mistrust issue is emphasized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer preferences in a desegregated school: A round robin analysis.

Analyzed children's sociometric ratings of their classmates in a desegregated school by both conventional and round robin ANOVAs. 49 Black male, 51 Black female, 36 White male, and 27 White female 6th graders indicated how much they would like to play and work with each of their classmates. Unlike conventional ANOVA, which aggregates each S's ratings of the members of a group, the round robin procedure permits the assessment of the effects of individual dyadic relationships on expressed preferences, and can therefore provide additional information on the processes involved in preference formation. The impact of both race and sex on sociometric choices was explored using these 2 techniques. Although conventional ANOVA showed strong same-race preferences, round robin ANOVA revealed that individual relationships were more important than race in forming peer preferences. A high degree of reciprocity of Ss' ratings of each other was found both within and between racial groups. Both conventional and round robin analyses found strong same-sex preferences, and much less reciprocity of ratings between the sexes than within the sexes. The complementary uses of conventional and round robin analyses of sociometric data are discussed. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Black students' counselor preference and attitudes toward counseling center use.

Surveyed 42 female and 33 male Black college students to determine factors related to Black student use of the university counseling center. Counselor preference, sex of client, sex of counselor, race of counselor, and type of problem were analyzed as to their effects on counseling center use. Results indicate that Black clients preferred Black counselors and that the likelihood of taking a problem to the counseling center increased as counselor preference increased. Also, the likelihood of taking a problem to the center was significantly greater if the counselor to be seen was Black rather than White. Client and counselor sex, and type of problem (personal or educational-vocational) had no effect on potential counseling center usage. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Story recall in young Black and White children: Effects of racial group membership, race of experimenter, and dialect.

Tested the effects of racial group membership, race of E, and dialect on unstructured and probed recall. l6 Black and 16 White 4-6 mo old children were Ss. Subgroups of 4 Ss within each racial group were randomly assigned to the experimental conditions such that order of exposure to E (Black and White) and dialects Standard English vs Black English vernacular) were counterbalanced. Results show that Whites performed better than Blacks in Standard English, Blacks performed better than Whites in Black English vernacular, Blacks tested in Black English vernacular were equivalent to Whites tested in Standard English, and Whites performed better in Standard English than in Black English vernacular. When probed with questions, there was an overall increase in the proportion of correct information for both racial groups. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of race and socioeconomic status on the perception of process variables in counseling.

Analyzed the effects of race and socioeconomic status (SES) on the perception of process variables in counseling, including judged counselor empathy, judged counselor–client cognitive similarity, and attraction. The study used a 2?×?12?×?2?×?6 design (race of S, tape order, SES of client, race of counselor and client) with repeated measures on the SES of client variable and the race of counselor and client variable. Following empathy training, 12 Black and 12 White undergraduate middle-class males listened to 12 specially prepared counselor–client taped dialogs and rated the counselor and client on each tape on the process variables being researched. All hypotheses were confirmed. Both Black and White Ss gave highest counselor empathy ratings, client–counselor attraction and cognitive similarity ratings, and client improvement ratings to matchings in which the counselor and client were similar over race and social class, and they gave lowest ratings when the counselor and client were dissimilar over race and social class. Effects of client accent were generally not significant. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)