Graduated compression stockings: physiological and perceptual responses during and after exercise

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of wearing graduated compression stockings on physiological and perceptual variables during and after intermittent (Experiment 1) and continuous (Experiment 2) running exercise. Fourteen recreational runners performed two multi-stage intermittent shuttle running tests with 1 h recovery between tests (Experiment 1). A further 14 participants performed a fast-paced continuous 10-km road run (Experiment 2). Participants wore commercially available knee-length graduated compression stockings (pressure at ankle 18 - 22 mmHg) beneath ankle-length sports socks (experimental trials) or just the latter (control trials) in a randomized counterbalanced design (for both experiments). No performance or physiological differences were observed between conditions during intermittent shuttle running. During the 10-km trials, there was a reduction in delayed-onset muscle soreness 24 h after exercise when wearing graduated compression stockings (P < 0.05). There was a marked difference in the frequency and location of soreness: two participants in the stockings trial but 13 participants in the control trial indicated soreness in the lower legs. Wearing graduated compression stockings during a 10-km road run appears to reduce delayed-onset muscle soreness after exercise in recreationally active men.     

The influence of wearing compression stockings on performance indicators and physiological responses following a prolonged trail running exercise

Abstract

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of wearing compression socks (CS) on performance indicators and physiological responses during prolonged trail running. Eleven trained runners completed a 15.6 km trail run at a competition intensity whilst wearing or not wearing CS. Counter movement jump, maximal voluntary contraction and the oxygenation profile of vastus lateralis muscle using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) method were measured before and following exercise. Run time, heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration and ratings of perceived exertion were evaluated during the CS and non-CS sessions. No significant difference in any dependent variables was observed during the run sessions. Run times were 5681.1±503.5 and 5696.7±530.7 s for the non-CS and CS conditions, respectively. The relative intensity during CS and non-CS runs corresponded to a range of 90.5–91.5% HR_max. Although NIRS measurements such as muscle oxygen uptake and muscle blood flow significantly increased following exercise (+57.7% and + 42.6%,+59.2% and + 32.4%, respectively for the CS and non-CS sessions, P<0.05), there was no difference between the run conditions. The findings suggest that competitive runners do not gain any practical or physiological benefits from wearing CS during prolonged off-road running.     

Physiological responses to laboratory-based soccer-specific intermittent and continuous exercise

The aim of this study was to devise a laboratory-based protocol for a motorized treadmill that was representative of work rates observed during soccer match-play. Selected physiological responses to this soccer-specific intermittent exercise protocol were then compared with steady-rate exercise performed at the same average speed. Seven male university soccer players (mean - s : age 24 - 2 years, height 1.78 - 0.1 m, mass 72.2 - 5.0 kg, VO 2max 57.8 - 4 ml·kg -1 ·min -1 ) completed a 45-min soccer-specific intermittent exercise protocol on a motorized treadmill. They also completed a continuous steady-rate exercise session for an identical period at the same average speed. The physiological responses to the laboratory-based soccer-specific protocol were similar to values previously observed for soccer match-play (oxygen consumption approximately 68% of maximum, heart rate 168 - 10 beats·min -1 ). No significant differences were observed in oxygen consumption, heart rate, rectal temperature or sweat production rate between the two conditions. Average minute ventilation was greater ( P ? 0.05) in intermittent exercise (81.3 - 0.2l·min -1 ) than steady-rate exercise (72.4 - 11.4l·min -1 ). The rating of perceived exertion for the session as a whole was 15 - 2 during soccer-specific intermittent exercise and 12 - 1 for continuous exercise ( P ? 0.05). The physiological strain associated with the laboratory-based soccer-specific intermittent protocol was similar to that associated with 45 min of soccer match-play, based on the variables measured, indicating the relevance of the simulation as a model of match-play work rates. Soccer-specific intermittent exercise did not increase the demands placed on the aerobic energy systems compared to continuous exercise performed at the same average speed, although the results indicate that anaerobic energy provision is more important during intermittent than during continuous exercise at the same average speed.     

Training of elite cyclists: effects on mood state and selected hormonal responses

The psychobiological status of cyclists over a period of 8 months of training was assessed by measuring the sympatho-adrenal level, the central noradrenergic activity, and the cortisol?-?testosterone ratio status non-invasively. Alteration of these indices after a large increase in training load lasting 4 days (?+?187%) was also examined. Urinary excretion of methoxyamines (metanephrine, normetanephrine) and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol sulphate (MHPG-S), and salivary concentrations of cortisol and testosterone, were measured in 12 national cyclists after a non-specific training period and 48 h before 4 days of increased training (T₁), after these 4 days (T₂) and at the end of 4 months of specific training (T₃). Urinary and salivary samples were also collected during a rest period (T₀). At each of these times, mood states and ratings of perceived muscle soreness were assessed, and a questionnaire of early clinical symptoms of the overtraining syndrome (Profile of Mood States) was administered. A significant increase in normetanephrine (P <?0.05) and a decrease in the testosterone?-?cortisol ratio (P <?0.05) were observed at T₂, while MHPG-S excretion remained unchanged. Over the same periods, increased training loads did not induce mood disturbances. Eight months of training were associated with significant alterations in metanephrine (P?<?0.05) and MHPG-S (P?<?0.05). These results suggest a dissociation between the neural and endocrine catecholaminergic components systems. Opposite responses between MHPG-S and Profile of Mood States scores show that further investigations are needed to understand the relationship between central noradrenergic function, which is recognized as a regulatory factor of mood, and psychological tests measuring mood.     

Physiological responses and performance in a simulated trampoline gymnastics competition in elite male gymnasts

Abstract

Physiological responses and performance were examined during and after a simulated trampoline competition (STC). Fifteen elite trampoline gymnasts participated, of which eight completed two routines (EX1 and EX2) and a competition final (EX3). Trampoline-specific activities were quantified by video-analysis. Countermovement jump (CMJ) and 20 maximal trampoline jump (20-MTJ) performances were assessed. Heart rate (HR) and quadriceps muscle temperature (T_m) were recorded and venous blood was drawn. A total of 252 ± 16 jumps were performed during the STC. CMJ performance declined (P < 0.05) by 3.8, 5.2 and 4.2% after EX1, EX2 and EX3, respectively, and was 4.8% lower (P < 0.05) than baseline 24 h post-competition. 20-MTJ flight time was ~1% shorter (P < 0.05) for jump 1–10 after EX2 and 24 h post STC. T_m increased (P < 0.05) to ~39°C after the warm-up, but declined (P < 0.05) 1.0 and 0.6ºC before EX2 and EX3, respectively. Peak HR was 95–97% HR_max during EX1-3. Peak blood lactate, plasma K⁺ and NH₃ were 6.5 ± 0.5, 6.0 ± 0.2 mmol · l^?1 and 92 ± 10 µmol · l^?1, respectively. Plasma CK increased (P < 0.05) by ~50 and 65% 0 and 24 h after STC. In conclusion, a trampoline gymnastic competition includes a high number of repeated explosive and energy demanding jumps, which impairs jump performance during and 24 h post-competition.     

The effects of work:rest duration on physiological and perceptual responses during intermittent exercise and performance

Abstract

In this study, we examined the effects of different work:rest durations during 20 min intermittent treadmill running and subsequent performance. Nine males (mean age 25.8 years, s = 6.8; body mass 73.9 kg, s = 8.8; stature 1.75 m, s = 0.05; [Vdot]O_2max 55.5 ml · kg^?1 · min^?1, s = 5.8) undertook repeated sprints at 120% of the speed at which [Vdot]O_2max was attained interspersed with passive recovery. The work:rest ratio was constant (1:1.5) with trials involving either short (6:9 s) or long (24:36 s) work:rest exercise protocols (total exercise time 8 min). Each trial was followed by a performance run to volitional exhaustion at the same running speed. Testing order was randomized and counterbalanced. Heart rate, oxygen consumption, respiratory exchange ratio, and blood glucose were similar between trials (P > 0.05). Blood lactate concentration was greater during the long than the short exercise protocol (P < 0.05), whereas blood pH was lower during the long than the short exercise protocol (7.28, s = 0.11 and 7.30, s = 0.03 at 20 min, respectively; P < 0.05). Perceptions of effort were greater throughout exercise for the long than the short exercise protocol (16.6, s = 1.4 and 15.1, s = 1.6 at 20 min, respectively; P < 0.05) and correlated with blood lactate (r = 0.43) and bicarbonate concentrations (r = ?0.59; P < 0.05). Although blood lactate concentration at 20 min was related to performance time (r = ?0.56; P < 0.05), no differences were observed between trials for time to exhaustion (short exercise protocol: 95.8 s, s = 30.0; long exercise protocol: 92.0 s, s = 37.1) or physiological responses at exhaustion (P > 0.05). Our results demonstrate that 20 min of intermittent exercise involving a long work:rest duration elicits greater metabolic and perceptual strain than intermittent exercise undertaken with a short work:rest duration but does not affect subsequent run time to exhaustion.     

The effects of work:rest duration on physiological and perceptual responses during intermittent exercise and performance

In this study, we examined the effects of different work:rest durations during 20 min intermittent treadmill running and subsequent performance. Nine males (mean age 25.8 years, s = 6.8; body mass 73.9 kg, s = 8.8; stature 1.75 m, s = 0.05; VO(2max) 55.5 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1), s = 5.8) undertook repeated sprints at 120% of the speed at which VO(2max) was attained interspersed with passive recovery. The work:rest ratio was constant (1:1.5) with trials involving either short (6:9 s) or long (24:36 s) work:rest exercise protocols (total exercise time 8 min). Each trial was followed by a performance run to volitional exhaustion at the same running speed. Testing order was randomized and counterbalanced. Heart rate, oxygen consumption, respiratory exchange ratio, and blood glucose were similar between trials (P > 0.05). Blood lactate concentration was greater during the long than the short exercise protocol (P < 0.05), whereas blood pH was lower during the long than the short exercise protocol (7.28, s = 0.11 and 7.30, s = 0.03 at 20 min, respectively; P < 0.05). Perceptions of effort were greater throughout exercise for the long than the short exercise protocol (16.6, s = 1.4 and 15.1, s = 1.6 at 20 min, respectively; P < 0.05) and correlated with blood lactate (r = 0.43) and bicarbonate concentrations (r = 0.59; P < 0.05). Although blood lactate concentration at 20 min was related to performance time (r = - 0.56; P < 0.05), no differences were observed between trials for time to exhaustion (short exercise protocol: 95.8 s, s = 30.0; long exercise protocol: 92.0 s, s = 37.1) or physiological responses at exhaustion (P > 0.05). Our results demonstrate that 20 min of intermittent exercise involving a long work:rest duration elicits greater metabolic and perceptual strain than intermittent exercise undertaken with a short work:rest duration but does not affect subsequent run time to exhaustion.     

Selected physiological and perceptual responses during a simulated limited overs century in non-elite batsmen

Few studies have examined the impact of an increased physical demand on batting performance, especially over extended periods of play. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the physiological and perceptual responses of batsmen scoring a simulated limited overs century, and to link these to sprint times and accuracy of the impact of the ball on the bat. Seventeen male, university level cricketers, performed a batting protocol (BATEX^©), typical of a limited overs century. The protocol consisted of six stages, each of five overs, with each stage matched to a specific phase of play. Throughout the protocol heart rate (HR), central ratings of perceived effort (RPE), sprint times and impact accuracy were recorded. HR fluctuated as a function of exercise intensity (124.16–159.61?bpm). Central RPE increased as a function of intensity and duration (11.87–16.04). Sprint times got slower over time (5.67–5.81?s), while impact accuracy improved significantly (p?.05) after stage one and then plateaued for the remainder of the protocol (64.81–57.39?mm). In conclusion, the protocol significantly impacted cardiac strain and perceptual responses negatively impacting sprint times with an improvement in batting accuracy.     

Maximal strength and cortisol responses to psyching-up during the squat exercise

We studied the effect of psyching-up on one-repetition maximum (1-RM) performance and salivary cortisol responses during the squat exercise. Ten men (age 21.6?±?1.4 years; mean?±?s) and ten women (age 22.4?±?2.8 years) with weight training experience of 4.5?±?2.0 years participated in this study. One-repetition maximum squats were performed on a Smith machine during each of two different intervention conditions that were counterbalanced and consisted of a free choice psych-up and a cognitive distraction. Saliva samples were obtained at the beginning of each test session and immediately after the final 1-RM attempt. No significant difference in 1-RM was identified between psyching-up (104?±?50?kg) and cognitive distraction (106?±?52?kg). Performing a 1-RM in the squat exercise significantly increased salivary cortisol concentrations during both conditions (P <?0.05). There was no significant difference in salivary cortisol responses between conditions. These results suggest that psyching-up does not increase 1-RM performance during the squat exercise in strength-trained individuals.     

Isokinetic and isometric muscle function of the knee extensors and flexors during simulated soccer activity: Effect of exercise and dehydration

Abstract

This study investigated the influence of dehydration during soccer-type intermittent exercise on isokinetic and isometric muscle function. Eight soccer players performed two 90-min high-intensity intermittent shuttle-running trials without (NF) or with (FL) fluid ingestion (5 ml · kg^?1 before and 2 ml · kg^?1 every 15 min). Isokinetic and isometric strength and muscular power of knee flexors and knee extensors were measured pre-exercise, at half-time and post-exercise using isokinetic dynamometry. Sprint performance was monitored throughout the simulated-soccer exercise. Isokinetic knee strength was reduced at faster (3.13 rad · s^?1; P = 0.009) but not slower (1.05 rad · s^?1; P = 0.063) contraction speeds with exercise; however, there was no difference between FL and NF. Peak isometric strength of the knee extensors (P = 0.002) but not the knee flexors (P = 0.065) was significantly reduced with exercise with no difference between FL and NF. Average muscular power was reduced over time at both 1.05 rad · s^?1 (P = 0.01) and 3.14 rad · s^?1 (P = 0.033) but was not different between FL and NF. Mean 15-m sprint time increased with duration of exercise (P = 0.005) but was not different between FL and NF. In summary, fluid ingestion during 90 min of soccer-type exercise was unable to offset the reduction in isokinetic and isometric strength and muscular power of the knee extensors and flexors.     

Accuracy of an infrared LED device to measure heart rate and energy expenditure during rest and exercise

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the accuracy of the ePulse Personal Fitness Assistant, a forearm-worn device that provides measures of heart rate and estimates energy expenditure. Forty-six participants engaged in 4-minute periods of standing, 2.0 mph walking, 3.5 mph walking, 4.5 mph jogging, and 6.0 mph running. Heart rate and energy expenditure were simultaneously recorded at 60-second intervals using the ePulse, an electrocardiogram (EKG), and indirect calorimetry. The heart rates obtained from the ePulse were highly correlated (intraclass correlation coefficients [ICCs] ≥0.85) with those from the EKG during all conditions. The typical errors progressively increased with increasing exercise intensity but were <5 bpm only during rest and 2.0 mph. Energy expenditure from the ePulse was poorly correlated with indirect calorimetry (ICCs: 0.01–0.36) and the typical errors for energy expenditure ranged from 0.69–2.97 kcal · min^?1, progressively increasing with exercise intensity. These data suggest that the ePulse Personal Fitness Assistant is a valid device for monitoring heart rate at rest and low-intensity exercise, but becomes less accurate as exercise intensity increases. However, it does not appear to be a valid device to estimate energy expenditure during exercise.     

Effect of asthma and six-months high-intensity interval training on heart rate variability during exercise in adolescents

ABSTRACT

Little is known regarding the influence of asthma and exercise, and their interaction, on heart rate variability (HRV) in adolescents.

Thirty-one adolescents with asthma (13.7±0.9 years; 21.9±3.9 kg·m^?2; 19 boys, 12 girls) and thirty-three healthy adolescents (13.8±0.9 years; 20.3±3.2 kg·m^?2; 16 boys, 17 girls) completed an incremental ramp test and three heavy-intensity constant-work-rate cycle tests. Thirteen adolescents (7 boys, 6 girls; 6 asthma, 7 control) completed six-months high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and were compared to age- and sex-matched controls. Standard time-domain, frequency-domain and non-linear indices of HRV were derived at baseline, three- and six-months.

Asthma did not influence HRV at baseline or following HIIT. Total power, low frequency and normalised low frequency power, and sympathovagal balance increased at three-months in HIIT, subsequently declining towards baseline at six-months. Normalised high frequency power was reduced at three-months in both groups, which was sustained at six-months. No effects of HIIT were observed in the time-domain nor in the non-linear indices.

HRV was not influenced by asthma, potentially because such derangements are a function of disease progression, severity or duration. HIIT may be associated with a short-term shift towards greater sympathetic predominance during exercise, perhaps caused by physiological overload and fatigue.     

The influence of playing surface on physiological and performance responses during and after soccer simulation

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of playing surface on physiological and performance responses during and in the 48 h after simulated soccer match play. Blood lactate, single-sprint, repeated-sprint and agility of eight amateur soccer players were assessed throughout a 90-min soccer-simulation protocol (SSP) completed on natural turf (NT) and artificial turf. Counter-movement jump, multiple-rebound jump, sprint (10 m, 60 m), L-agility run (L-AR), creatine kinase (CK) and perception of muscle soreness (PMS) were measured before, immediately after, 24 h and 48 h after exercise. Analyses revealed significant changes in blood lactate and single-sprint performance (both P < 0.05) during the SSP but with no significant differences between surfaces. Conversely, repeated-sprint performance demonstrated an interaction effect, with reductions in performance evident on NT only (P < 0.05). Whilst L-AR and 10-m sprint performance remained unchanged, 60-m sprint and multiple-rebound jump performance were impaired, and PMS and CK were elevated immediately following the SSP (all P < 0.05) but with no surface effects. Although performance, CK and PMS were negatively affected to some degree in the 48 h after the SSP, there was no surface effect. For the artificial and natural surfaces used in the present study, physiological and performance responses to simulated soccer match play appear to be similar. Whilst a potential for small differences in performance response exists during activity, surface type does not affect the pattern of recovery following simulated match play.     

Physiological and biomechanical responses to walking underwater on a non-motorised treadmill: effects of different exercise intensities and depths in middle-aged healthy women

Abstract

Non-motorised underwater treadmills are commonly used in fitness activities. However, no studies have examined physiological and biomechanical responses of walking on non-motorised treadmills at different intensities and depths. Fifteen middle-aged healthy women underwent two underwater walking tests at two different depths, immersed either up to the xiphoid process (deep water) or the iliac crest (shallow water), at 100, 110, 120, 130 step-per-minute (spm). Oxygen consumption (VO₂), heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration, perceived exertion and step length were determined. Compared to deep water, walking in shallow water exhibited, at all intensities, significantly higher VO₂ (+13.5%, on average) and HR (+8.1%, on average) responses. Water depth did not influence lactate concentration, whereas perceived exertion was higher in shallow compared to deep water, solely at 120 (+40%) and 130 (+39.4%) spm. Average step length was reduced as the intensity increased (from 100 to 130 spm), irrespective of water depth. Expressed as a percentage of maximum, average VO₂ and HR were: 64–76% of peak VO₂ and 71–90% of maximum HR, respectively at both water depths. Accordingly, this form of exercise can be included in the “vigorous” range of exercise intensity, at any of the step frequencies used in this study.     

Responses of low and high compression during recovery after repeated sprint training in well-trained handball players

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of wearing various levels of compression following repeated and exhausting sprint exercise on variables related to recovery. Twelve well-trained handball players performed three sessions of repeated and exhausting sprint exercise (30?×?30m). Directly after each session the participants wore tights extending from below the hip to the foot with either 0, 10, or 25?mm?Hg of compression onto the thigh and calf muscles. 48?h after the training session all participants performed 5?×?30m sprints and counter movement jumps. Before, directly after, 24?h, and 48?h after the training session venous blood samples were drawn for the determination of creatine kinase (CK), urea, C-reactive protein (CRP). At the same time points, subjective ratings of the Acute Recovery and Stress Scale (ARSS) questionnaires were obtained. The results for plasma concentrations of CK and urea showed ‘likely’ to ‘very, very likely’ beneficial effects for compression garments exerting 10?mm?Hg of compression (p?=?0.06–1.0). With regard to sprint and jump performance no differences were evident between 0, 10, and 25?mm?Hg (p?=?0.07–1.0). In addition, subjective scores from the ARSS did not differ between conditions over time (p?>?0.05). We conclude that the application of 10?mm?Hg leg compression compared to 0 and 25?mm?Hg of compression during 48?h of recovery from repeated and exhausting sprints lowered the plasma concentrations of CK and urea with no improvements in recovery for performance.     

不同压力下肢紧身服对跑步运动中摄氧量及运动后血乳酸恢复的影响

研究目的:研究穿着不同压力下肢紧身服对跑步过程中摄氧量以及运动后血乳酸恢复的影响。研究方法:选择北京体育大学12名健康男性长跑爱好者作为研究对象。受试者进行3次递增负荷最大摄氧量测试,在测试期间随机穿戴不同压力的下肢紧身服和普通运动长裤进行测试。最大摄氧量测试采用METAMAX 3B心肺功能测试系统进行测试,根据Bruce测试方案每3 min递增负荷,直至受试者运动至力竭。分别在安静时、运动后1 min、4 min、7 min和10 min 5个时刻测量血乳酸指标。采用Simi Aktisys 3D实验设备进行肌肉震动测试。采用一般线性模型的重复测量统计学方法比较3种情况下各项指标的差异。研究结果:运动过程中,高压力下肢紧身服在第二负荷上的耗氧量显著减小(P=0.047),但在其他负荷的耗氧量以及最大摄氧量没有出现显著性的差异。不同压力下肢紧身服对乳酸最大值以及乳酸消除速率没有产生显著性的影响。不同压力下肢紧身服均能够显著减小股四头肌、股二头肌和腓肠肌的肌肉震动(P=0.017、P=0.012、P=0.028),并且压力较大的下肢紧身服对肌肉的固定效果更好。研究结论:不同压力下肢紧身服对一次性高强度跑步运动过程中的最大摄氧量没有显著性的影响,但有可能在一定运动强度范围内减少运动过程中氧气的消耗。下肢紧身服对一次性高强度跑步运动后乳酸恢复没有显著性的影响。下肢紧身服能够降低肌肉的额外震动,并且压力越大,效果越好。     

Effects of compression garments on surface EMG and physiological responses during and after distance running

BackgroundThe few previous studies that focused on the effects of compression garments (CG) on distance running performance have simultaneously measured electromyogram, physiological, and perceptual parameters. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of CG on muscle activation and median frequency during and after distance running, as well as blood-lactate concentration and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during distance running.MethodsEight healthy male recreational runners were recruited to randomly perform two 40 min treadmill running trials, one with CG, and the other with control garment made of normal cloth. The RPE and the surface electromyography (EMG) of 5 lower extremity muscles including gluteus maximus (GM), rectus femoris (RF), semitendinosus (ST), tibialis anterior (TA), and gastrocnemius (GAS) were measured during the running trial. The blood-lactate levels before and after the running trial were measured.ResultsWearing CG led to significant lower muscle activation (p < 0.05) in the GM (decreased 7.40%–14.31%), RF (decreased 4.39%–4.76%), and ST (decreased 3.42%–7.20%) muscles; moreover, significant higher median frequency (p < 0.05) in the GM (increased 5.57%) and ST (increased 10.58%) muscles. Wearing CG did not alter the RPE values or the blood-lactate levels (p > 0.05).ConclusionWearing CG was associated with significantly lower muscle activation and higher median frequency in the running-related key muscles during distance running. This finding suggested that wearing CG may improve muscle function, which might enhance running performance and prevent muscle fatigue.     

Impact of a Submaximal Warm-Up on Endurance Performance in Highly Trained and Competitive Male Runners

Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of a submaximal running warm-up on running performance in male endurance athletes (n = 16, M_age = 21 ± 2 years, M_VO2max = 69.3 ± 5.1 mL/kg/min). Method: Endurance performance was determined by a 30-min distance trial after control and submaximal running warm-up conditions in a randomized crossover fashion. The warm-up began with 5 min of quiet sitting, followed by 6 min of submaximal running split into 2-min intervals at speeds corresponding to 45%, 55%, and 65% maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂max). A 2-min walk at 3.2 km/hr concluded the 13-min warm-up protocol. For the control condition, participants sat quietly for 13 min. VO₂ and heart rate (HR) were determined at Minutes 0, 5, and 13 of the pre-exercise protocol in each condition. Results: At the end of 13 min prior to the distance trial, mean VO₂ (warm-up = 14.1 ± 2.2 mL/kg/min vs. control = 5.5 ± 1.7 mL/kg/min) and mean HR (warm-up = 105 ± 11 bpm vs. control = 67 ± 11 bpm) were statistically greater (p < .001) in the warm-up condition compared with the control condition. The distance run did not statistically differ (p = .37) between the warm-up (7.8 ± 0.5 km) and control (7.7 ± 0.6 km) conditions; however, effect size calculation revealed a small effect (d = 0.2) in favor of the warm-up condition. Thus, the warm-up employed may have important and practical implications to determine placing among high-level athletes in close races. Conclusions: These findings suggest a submaximal running warm-up may have a small but critical effect on a 30-min distance trial in competitive endurance athletes. Further, the warm-up elicited increases in physiological variables VO₂ and HR prior to performance; thus, a submaximal specific warm-up should warrant consideration.     

Perceptual and cognitive responses during exercise: Relationships with metamotivational state and dominance

Abstract

In this study, we examined ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and attentional focus during exercise in relation to telic and paratelic metamotivational dominance and state. Thirty regular exercisers (11 females, 19 males), of whom 10 were telic dominant (mean Paratelic Dominance Scale score=6.2±2.9), 10 paratelic dominant (mean PDS score=23.8±1.4), and 10 non-dominant (mean PDS score=15.4±0.7) completed two exercise trials. In the first trial, the participants completed a maximal ramped exercise test on a motorized treadmill to determine their gas exchange threshold (the speed at which determined exercise intensity of the subsequent trial). Throughout the second trial (a 30-min treadmill run), the participants reported their metamotivational state, RPE, and attentional focus (associative or dissociative) at 5-min intervals. Heart rate was recorded at 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, and 28 min and expired air was analysed for oxygen consumption (VO₂) between 1–3, 6–8, 11–13, 16–18, 21–23, and 26–28 min. There was no main effect of dominance or dominance×time interaction on any variables (P >0.05). Oxygen consumption did not differ between states but RPE was higher in the telic than paratelic state at 25 and 30 min (t ₂₈=2.87, P <0.05; t _26.77=3.88, P <0.05, respectively). Attentional focus was more associative in the telic than paratelic state at 20, 25, and 30 min (t ₂₈=? 3.73, P <0.05; t ₂₈=? 4.85, P <0.01; t ₂₈=? 5.15, P <0.05, respectively) and heart rate was higher at 23 min in the telic state (t ₂₇=3.40, P <0.05). During the latter stages of exercise, the telic metamotivational state, not dominance, was related to a more associative attentional focus and higher RPE. Our results support the use of reversal theory (Apter, 2001) to understand perceptual and cognitive responses during aerobic exercise, but an experimental design in which state is manipulated is needed to examine the effects of metamotivational dominance and state on perceptual and cognitive responses.     

Autonomic nervous system modulation during an archery competition in novice and experienced adolescent archers

Abstract

We assessed autonomic nervous system modulation through changes in heart rate variability during an archery competition as well as archery performance by comparing novice and experienced adolescent archers. Seven novice (age 14.0 ± 8.5 years, body mass index 22.9 ± 4.3 kg · m^?2, training experience 0.4 ± 0.3 years) and ten experienced archers (age 16.5 ± 10.3 years, body mass index 22.4 ± 3.1 kg · m^?2, training experience 4.1 ± 0.9 years) volunteered. Using beat-by-beat heart rate monitoring, heart rate variability was measured for 20 s before each arrow shot during two rounds of competition. We found that, compared with novices, experienced adolescent archers: (i) take more time per shot; (ii) have a higher low frequency band, square root of the mean of squared differences between successive R-R intervals (i.e. the time elapsing between two consecutive R waves in the electrocardiogram), and percentage of successive normal-to-normal intervals greater than 50 ms; and (iii) demonstrate an increase in parasympathetic nervous system activity compared with pre-competition values. We propose that these characteristics of experienced archers are appropriate for optimal performance during competition.