类泛素蛋白ISG15及其在先天免疫中的作用

病毒感染和干扰素刺激高等动物细胞,均可以强烈地诱导表达干扰素刺激基因15编码的蛋白ISG15,它是最早发现的类泛素修饰蛋白.虽然针对泛素及其修饰功能已进行了广泛而深入地研究,但对于ISG15共价修饰以及它的生物学功能了解甚少,有待进一步探讨.该领域的研究近几年有所突破,发现了有关ISG15修饰的酶系统,ISG15及其修饰系统在先天免疫以及干扰素信号调节中的重要作用.简要介绍ISG15的发现历史、生化性质、基因调控特点以及ISG15修饰系统中所涉及的酶,总结目前研究ISG15及其修饰与调节先天性免疫相关过程的一些最新进展.     

类泛素蛋白ISG15及其共价酶修饰系统与肿瘤

干扰素刺激基因15(interferon-stimulated gene 15,ISG15)编码的ISG15蛋白是最早发现的类泛素修饰蛋白。不仅干扰素和病毒感染能诱导该基因的表达,一些抗肿瘤药物也能刺激ISG15的表达。近年来,ISG15及其修饰系统与肿瘤的关系备受关注。研究证实,ISG15的激活酶E1即UBE1L与某些肿瘤的抑制有关,而其他一些成分如ISG15解聚酶UBP43则与肿瘤发生发展有关。此外,ISG15高表达与肿瘤的转移有关,ISG15对化疗药物的敏感性也有影响。本文较为全面地阐述ISG15及其修饰系统在肿瘤抑制或发生发展中的生物学作用,这将增强对ISG15与肿瘤关系的基础性认识,并为发展新的肿瘤靶向性治疗提供理论依据。     

泛素样蛋白ISG15抗病毒机制研究进展

ISG15(Interferon stimulated gene 15,ISG15)蛋白是由干扰素诱导产生的一种泛素样蛋白分子,分子量大小约为15kD。ISG15同泛素分子相类似可以被共价结合于其他蛋白分子上,这种现象称为ISG化(ISGylation)现象。ISG化系统包括ISG15、UBE1L、UBCH8和HERC5四类蛋白分子,协同完成ISG化过程。ISG15及ISG化系统在抗病毒反应中具有重要作用。近几年对于ISG15的抗病毒作用和机制的研究已经有了很大的突破,ISG15的抗病毒作用也越来越受到人们重视,了解清楚ISG15抗病毒机制对于研制新的抗病毒药物及提出新的抗病毒策略具有重要意义。本文对ISG15在不同种病毒中的抗病毒机制研究进展进行了简要综述。     

类泛素修饰蛋白bISG15抗血清在体外修饰系统中的应用

ISG15由干扰素刺激基因15编码,是最早被发现的类泛素修饰分子.病毒感染以及干扰素刺激可以强烈诱导其表达.与泛素类似,ISG15可以共价连接到其他蛋白分子上进行修饰,但ISG15及其连接修饰的功能作用还有很多尚未知.最近的研究表明,ISG15及其修饰作用在先天免疫中起着重要的作用.将牛类ISG15基因克隆进入pET28a(+)原核表达载体,并且表达了可溶的融合有His-tag标签的bISG15融合蛋白.使用Ni-NTA葡聚糖进行纯化浓缩.纯化蛋白免疫Balb/c小鼠并获得抗血清.Western印迹实验显示,抗血清可以特异地识别在真核细胞中表达的bISG15.浓缩的bISG15以及制备的抗血清用于建立bISG15的体外修饰系统.实验证明,使用该系统bISG15可以连接到细胞蛋白上进行修饰.     

植物中的小类泛素修饰因子(SUMO)修饰系统

小类泛素修饰因子(SUMO)是一种可以通过异肽键修饰其他蛋白质的小分子多肽,是在动物中发现的类似于泛素的蛋白质修饰方式。它参与调节了植物对逆境反应、病源防御、脱落酸信号传递以及成花诱导等许多过程,是植物正常生长发育中必不可少的蛋白质修饰方式。文章就其研究进展作一简要介绍。     

泛素样蛋白ISG15在抗病毒天然免疫中的作用

干扰素刺激基因15(ISG15)编码的蛋白是抗病毒天然免疫通路中的重要调节因子,病毒感染和干扰素刺激均可强烈诱导ISG15的表达。ISG15是最早发现的泛素样蛋白,可对细胞内多种蛋白进行修饰并调节蛋白功能,但不介导蛋白质的降解,在机体抗病毒天然免疫反应中发挥重要作用,其机制尚未完全明确。近几年对ISG15的研究有所突破,发现了ISG15在抗病毒天然免疫反应中的新功能。我们简要概述了泛素样蛋白ISG15的概况、修饰酶系统及ISG15在抗病毒天然免疫反应中功能的研究进展。     

SARS 冠状病毒非结构蛋白质NSP3突变体构建及其对类泛素分子DUB活性

SARS冠状病毒(SARS-CoV) 非结构蛋白NSP3编码的木瓜蛋白酶样蛋白酶(PLpro)对泛素样分子(Ubl) 具有去泛素化酶(DUB)活性,但目前有关NSP3 DUB活性研究的报道甚少. 本研究构建包含Nsp3基因 N末端不同结构域的突变体,并检测NSP3及其一系列突变体对类泛素分子ISG15和SUMO所修饰蛋白质分子的作用特性. 实验结果表明,NSP3及其突变体NSP3AD,NSP3AE,NSP3AF具有一定的去ISG15活性,而其突变体NSP3AC则没有去ISG15 (DeISGylation) 活性. 研究结果提示,SARS NSP3具有一定的体内去ISG15活性,并且这种活性主要依赖于Nsp3基因编码的PLpro. 但SARS NSP3及其突变体NSP3AC,NSP3AD,NSP3AE和NSP3AF并不具有去SUMO (DeSUMOylation) 活性. SARS冠状病毒NSP3对类泛素样分子作用特性的研究为后续NSP3的生物学特性及其对干扰素通路的调控研究奠定了基础.     

HIV-1感染上调细胞系中泛素样蛋白ISG15表达

利用体外细胞感染模型,分别检测HIV-1感染的细胞系中转录和翻译水平ISG15的表达及细胞上清中p24蛋白水平,探讨HIV-1感染对ISG15表达的影响及后者对前者的抑制效应。6种HIV-1易感细胞系中,以IFN-α 2b刺激作为阳性对照,利用HIV-1感染性克隆pNL4-3转染293T、TZM-bl和HeLa细胞;HIV-1假病毒感染Jurkat、MT-4和THP-1细胞,24h收细胞提取RNA,利用荧光定量PCR(qPCR)的方法检测转录水平ISG15的表达情况。48h后收细胞提取总蛋白,Western blot检测蛋白水平ISG15的表达情况。HIV-1感染或转染后明显上调ISG15转录水平,且THP-1和TZM-bl细胞中上调尤为显著。但除了TZM-bl细胞,其他5种细胞系中没有表现出ISG15蛋白水平的上调。ISG15真核表达质粒与HIV-1感染性克隆pNL4-3共转染结果显示,293T细胞中ISG15能直接抑制HIV-1子代病毒颗粒的产生和成熟,并且这种抑制作用具有时间剂量依赖性;TZM-bl中虽然也有显著的抑制作用,但是趋势不同。HIV-1感染明显上调ISG15转录但却无ISG15蛋白产生,预示该病毒能对抗固有免疫细胞的识别活化及其效应功能,具体机制还有待进一步阐明。     

蛋白质泛素化修饰的生物信息学研究进展

泛素-蛋白酶体系统(Ubiquitin-proteasome system, UPS)介导了真核生物80%~85%的蛋白质降解, 该蛋白质降解途径具有依赖ATP、高效、高度选择性的特点。除参与蛋白质降解之外, 泛素化修饰还可以直接影响蛋白质的活性和定位。由于泛素化修饰底物蛋白在细胞中的广泛存在, 泛素化修饰可以调控包括细胞周期、细胞凋亡、转录调控、DNA损伤修复以及免疫应答等在内的多种细胞活动。近年来, 泛素-蛋白酶体系统相关的蛋白质组学数据不断产出, 有效地管理、组织并合理分析这些数据显得尤为必要。文章综述了当前世界范围内针对蛋白质泛素化修饰展开的生物信息学研究, 总结了前人的工作结果, 包括UPS相关蛋白质数据的收录、泛素化修饰网络的构建和分析、泛素化修饰位点的预测及泛素化修饰motif的研究等方面内容, 并对该领域未来的发展方向进行了讨论。     

应用IP-2D nano-HPLC-MALDI-TOF-TOF鉴定蛋白质泛素化修饰

近年来,在蛋白质研究中,特别是在蛋白质翻译后修饰(PTM)的研究中,生物质谱技术的应用越来越广泛,与纳升级HPLC的联合应用,使这一技术手段更加有效.针对泛素化在细胞功能调控中发挥关键作用的PTM的特点,将免疫沉淀、2D nano-HPLC和基质辅助激光解吸/电离串联飞行时间质谱(IP-2D nano-HPLC-MALDI-TOF-TOF)有机整合,建立了天然状态下蛋白质泛素化位点的鉴定方法,并应用这一方法确定出K562细胞内具有酪氨酸激酶活性的蛋白c-ABL的泛素化位点.为定性鉴定生理和病理状态下内源性蛋白的泛素化修饰提供了借鉴.     

Proteomic identification of proteins conjugated to ISG15 in mouse and human cells

Though the interferon-inducible protein ISG15 was one of the first ubiquitin-like modifiers to be discovered, much remains unknown about the identity of proteins conjugated to ISG15 or the biologic consequences of modification. To gain a better understanding of the cellular pathways affected by ISG15, we identified proteins targeted for ISGylation using a proteomic approach. Mass spectrometric analysis identified 76 candidate ISGylation targets in anti-ISG15 immunoprecipitates from interferon-treated mouse or human cells. Twenty-one proteins were found in both mouse and human samples, including STAT1, a known target of ISGylation. Candidates identified in both species were tested for ISGylation in a transfection system: 18 of 19 proteins tested were ISGylated in this system. Two candidates, EF-2 and VCP, were also shown to be ISGylated in an interferon-dependent manner in the absence of exogenous over-expression. Seven proteins identified from a single species, but functionally related to candidates found in both species, were also ISGylated in the over-expression system. Proteins that can be ISGylated play important roles in translation, glycolysis, stress responses, and cell motility. These data indicate that ISGylation targets proteins found in several fundamentally important cellular pathways and will contribute to understanding the physiologic role of interferon-induced ISG15 and ISG15 conjugation.     

Viral defense, carcinogenesis and ISG15: novel roles for an old ISG

Recent studies have established that type I interferon modulates expression of large number of cellular genes. While the proteins encoded by some of these genes have a direct antiviral activity, the functions of the majority of the others have not yet been determined. One of the first identified IFN stimulated gene, encodes ubiquitin like protein ISG15 that is also expressed in response to different stress stimuli. Although it was shown that ISG15 functions as protein modifier, it has been only recently that the targets of ISG15 conjugation were identified. Recent studies have also revealed mechanism of ISG15 conjugation and its interaction with the ubiquitin conjugation pathway. This review is focused on the possible role of ISG15 in the antiviral response, regulation of cell growth and carcinogenesis.     

ISG15 modification of Ubc13 suppresses its ubiquitin-conjugating activity

ISG15 is one of the interferon-stimulated genes and is classified as a ubiquitin-like protein. Upon interferon stimuli, ISG15 is upregulated and becomes conjugated to various cellular proteins (ISGylation). Several target proteins for ISGylation have recently been identified, but the biological consequence of protein ISGylation remains unclear. In the course of our study to identify components of the ISGylation system, we found that Ubc13, an E2 enzyme for ubiquitin conjugation, is covalently modified with ISG15. To determine the meaning of ISGylation of Ubc13, we isolated ISG15-modified Ubc13 protein and compared its ubiquitin-conjugating activity with that of an unmodified one. We found that ISGylation of Ubc13 suppresses its ability to form a thioester intermediate with ubiquitin.     

Species Specificity of the NS1 Protein of Influenza B Virus: NS1 BINDS ONLY HUMAN AND NON-HUMAN PRIMATE UBIQUITIN-LIKE ISG15 PROTEINS*

Influenza B viruses, which cause a highly contagious respiratory disease every year, are restricted to humans, but the basis for this restriction had not been determined. Here we provide one explanation for this restriction: the species specificity exhibited by the NS1 protein of influenza B virus (NS1B protein). This viral protein combats a major host antiviral response by binding the interferon-α/β-induced, ubiquitin-like ISG15 protein and inhibiting its conjugation to an array of proteins. We demonstrate that the NS1B protein exhibits species-specific binding; it binds human and non-human primate ISG15 but not mouse or canine ISG15. In both transfection assays and virus-infected cells, the NS1B protein binds and relocalizes only human and non-human primate ISG15 from the cytoplasm to nuclear speckles. Human and non-human primate ISG15 proteins consist of two ubiquitin-like domains separated by a short hinge linker of five amino acids. Remarkably, this short hinge plays a large role in the species-specific binding by the NS1B protein. The hinge of human and non-human primate ISG15, which has a sequence that differs from that of other mammalian ISG15 proteins, including mouse and canine ISG15, is absolutely required for binding the NS1B protein. Consequently, the ISG15 proteins of humans and non-human primates are the only mammalian ISG15 proteins that would bind NS1B.     

Differential expression pattern of ISG15 in different tissue explants and cells induced by various interferons

Interferon stimulated gene 15 (ISG15), an ubiquitin cross-reactive protein, can conjugate to target proteins. Unlike ubiquitination, protein modification by ISG15 does not target protein for degradation, but enhances the cellular response to interferon (IFN), which plays a key role in antiviral responses. In this study, Western blot and/or immunocytochemistry were performed to explore the ISG15 expression patterns in explants of bovine endometrium, mammary gland and kidney, as well as Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK), endometrial and mammary cells stimulated by IFN-α, -β, and -τ. Western blot indicated that there are differential minimum antiviral units among recombinant bovine interferon-α (rbIFN-α, 10(2) IU/mL), rbIFN-β (10(3) IU/mL) and rbIFN-τ (10(4) IU/mL) in regard to stimulating saturation expression of free and ISG15-conjugated proteins by MDBK cells and endometrial and mammary explants. These results were further confirmed through immunocytochemical analysis of MDBK, endometrial and mammary cells. For the first time it has been shown that the expression pattern of ISG15-conjugated proteins occurs in a tissue-specific manner. Furthermore, the present findings provide the first evidence of 10- to 100-fold differences in minimum antiviral units of rbIFN-α, rbIFN-β, and rbIFN-τ in regard to stimulating saturation expression of ISG15.     

Negative regulation of ISG15 E3 ligase EFP through its autoISGylation

The function of ubiquitin-like protein ISG15 and protein modification by ISG15 (ISGylation) has been an enigma for many years. Recently, the research of ISGylation has been accelerated by the identification of the enzymes involved in the ISG15 conjugation process. Our previous study identified the interferon inducible protein EFP as an ISG15 isopeptide ligase (E3) for 14-3-3σ. In this study, we show that ISG15 E3 ligase EFP can be modified by ISG15. Two ubiquitin E2 conjugating enzymes, UbcH6 and UbcH8, can support ISGylation of EFP. The Ring-finger domain of EFP is important for its ISGylation. Full-length EFP can enhance the ISGylation of Ring domain deleted EFP, indicating EFP can function as an ISG15 E3 ligase for itself. We also determined the ISGylation site of EFP and created its ISGylation resistant mutant EFP-K117R. Compared to the wild-type EFP, this mutant further increases the ISGylation of 14-3-3σ. Thus we propose that autoISGylation of EFP negatively regulates its ISG15 E3 ligase activity for 14-3-3σ.     

Selectivity in ISG15 and ubiquitin recognition by the SARS coronavirus papain-like protease

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus papain-like protease (SARS-CoV PLpro) carries out N-terminal processing of the viral replicase polyprotein, and also exhibits Lys48-linked polyubiquitin chain debranching and ISG15 precursor processing activities in vitro. Here, we used SDS-PAGE and fluorescence-based assays to demonstrate that ISG15 derivatives are the preferred substrates for the deubiquitinating activity of the PLpro. With k(cat)/K(M) of 602,000 M(-1)s(-1), PLpro hydrolyzes ISG15-AMC 30- and 60-fold more efficiently than Ub-AMC and Nedd8-AMC, respectively. Data obtained with truncated ISG15 and hybrid Ub/ISG15 substrates indicate that both the N- and C-terminal Ub-like domains of ISG15 contribute to this preference. The enzyme also displays a preference for debranching Lys48- over Lys63-linked polyubiquitin chains. Our results demonstrate that SARS-CoV PLpro can differentiate between ubiquitin-like modifiers sharing a common C-terminal sequence, and that the debranching activity of the PLpro is linkage type selective. The potential structural basis for the demonstrated specificity of SARS-CoV PLpro is discussed.