Centrifuge model tests on pile-reinforced slopes subjected to drawdown

Piles are generally an effective way to reduce the risk of slope failure. However, previous approaches for slope stability analysis did not consider the effect of the piles coupled with the decrease of the water level (drawdown). In this study, a series of centrifuge model tests was performed to understand the deformation and failure characteristics of slopes reinforced with various pile layouts. In the centrifuge model tests, the pile-reinforced slopes exhibited two typical failure modes under drawdown conditions: across-pile failure and through-pile failure. In the through-pile slope failure, a discontinuous slip surface was observed, implying that the assumption of the slip surface in previous stability analysis methods was unreasonable. The test results showed that drawdown led to instability of the piles in cohesive soil, as the saturated cohesive soil failed to provide sufficient constraint for piles. The slope exhibited progressive failure, from top to bottom, during drawdown. The deformation of the piles was reduced by increasing the embedment depth and row number of piles. In addition, the deformation of soils outside the piles was influenced by the piles and showed a similar distribution shape as the piles, and the similarity degree weakened as the distance from the piles increased. This study also found that the failure mechanism of unreinforced and pile-reinforced slopes induced by drawdown could be described by coupling between the deformation localization and local failure, and it revealed that pile-reinforced slopes could reduce slope deformation localization during drawdown.     

谈土钉墙与锚杆、加筋土墙的比较分析

土钉支护是近年来发展起来的用于土体开挖和边坡稳定的一种新型挡土结构,由于经济、可靠且施工快速简便,已在我国得到迅速推广和应用.在基坑开挖中,土钉支护现已成为桩、墙、撑和锚支护后又一项较为成熟的支护技术.本文对土钉及土钉墙的概念、分类以及其应用领域和适用土层进行了阐述,同时也对土钉墙和锚杆、加筋土墙的作用机理和工作性能进行了比较分析探讨,为土钉墙基坑支护方案的选择提供一定的参考.     

Simplified method for analyzing soil slope deformation under cyclic loading

Reasonable assessment of slope deformation under cyclic loading is of great significance for securing the safety of slopes. The observations of centrifuge model tests are analyzed on the slope deformation behavior under cyclic loading conditions. The potential slip surface is the key for slope failure and follows two rules: (i) the relative horizontal displacement along the potential slip surface is invariable at an elevation, and (ii) the soil along the slip surface exhibits the same degradation pattern. These rules are effective regardless of the location of the potential slip surface throughout the entire deformation process of a homogeneous slope, ranging from the initial deformation stage to the failure process and to the post-failure stage. A new, simplified method is proposed by deriving the displacement compatibility equation and unified degradation equation according to the fundamental rules. The method has few parameters that can be determined through traditional element tests. The predictions from the proposed method agree with the centrifuge test results with vertical loading and shaking table loading. This result confirms that the proposed method is effective in predicting the full deformation process of slopes under different cyclic loading conditions.     

Dynamic behavior of reinforced clayey sand under cyclic loading

Experimental investigations and modeling of linear elasticity of fiber-reinforced clayey sand under cyclic loading unloading are conducted in this paper. Experimental studies are focused on four aspects. First, a series of cyclic triaxial tests, with different confining pressures and deviator stress ratios up to 150 cycles, are performed. Impacts of fiber content, cell pressure, deviator stress ratio and loading unloading repetition that affect dynamic behavior of the composite material are discussed. It is shown that shear modulus decreases with increasing deviator stress ratio at high confining pressure and the rate of loss of shear modulus found to be much lower for fiber reinforced specimens. Other results show that increase of shear modulus with loading repetition is more pronounced at higher deviator stress ratios. Second, the optimum fiber content is experimented under cyclic loading unloading and is expressed as a power function of deviatoric stress ratio. It is shown that optimum fiber content is not constant and it is affected by deviator stress ratio. Third, a function is introduced to describe the linear stress–strain curve under cyclic loading unloading using equivalent linear analysis. The shear modulus G is expressed as a function of fiber content, confining pressure, deviatoric stress ratio and loading repetition. Finally constitutive coefficients of the model parameters are calibrated by the results of cyclic triaxial shear tests and using the linear regression.     

Centrifuge model tests of geotextile-reinforced soil embankments during an earthquake

The behavior of geotextile-reinforced embankments during an earthquake was investigated using centrifuge model tests, considering a variety of factors such as gradient of slope, water content of soil, geotextile spacing, and input shaking wave. The geotextile-reinforcement mechanism was revealed on the basis of the observations with comparison of the unreinforced embankment. The geotextile significantly decreases the deformation of the embankment and restricts sliding failure that occurs in the unreinforced embankment during an earthquake. The displacement exhibits an evidently irreversible accumulation with a fluctuation during the earthquake which is significantly dependent on the magnitude of input shaking. The peak strain of the geotextile exhibits a nearly triangular distribution in the vertical direction. The embankment can be divided into two zones, a restricting zone and restricted zone, where the soil and geotextile, respectively, play an active restriction role in the soil-geotextile interaction. The soil restricts the geotextile in the restricting zone, and this restriction is transferred to the restricted zone through the geotextile. The strain magnitude of the geotextile and the horizontal displacement of the geotextile-reinforced embankment decrease with increasing geotextile layers, with decreasing water content of the soil, with decreasing gradient of the slope, and with decreasing amplitude of the earthquake wave.     

Force equilibrium-based finite displacement analyses for reinforced slopes: Formulation and verification

Formulation and verification for a force equilibrium-based finite displacement method (FFDM) using test results of reinforced model slopes subjected to increasing pseudo-static seismic forces are reported. The FFDM requires, in addition to force equilibrium for a sliced potential failure mass, a hyperbolic shear stress–displacement constitutive law for the backfill soils, a hyperbolic pull-out force–displacement constitutive law for the reinforcement, and a displacement compatibility requirement for adjacent soil slices. As a result, the mobilized reinforcement force is an analytical output, rather than an empiricism-based input as required in conventional limit equilibrium analyses. Analytical results from the FFDM also indicated that a brittle failure is associated with the lightly reinforced failure surface; a ductile failure is associated with the heavily reinforced failure surface, regardless of the extensibility of reinforcement investigated in the present study. Good agreements between the measured and the computed slope displacements and reinforcement forces in response to increases in pseudo-static seismic forces suggest that the FFDM can be used as an analytical tool for evaluating displacements of reinforced slopes subjected to pseudo-static seismic loads.     

Failure envelopes of pile groups under combined axial-moment loading: Theoretical background and experimental evidence

The problem of failure envelopes of pile groups subjected to vertical and eccentric load is investigated both theoretically and experimentally. A critical review of literature works on failure envelopes for pile groups under combined axial-moment loading is first provided. Emphasis is placed on a recent, exact solution derived from theorems of limit analysis by idealizing piles as uniaxial rigid-perfectly plastic elements. The application of the relevant equations over a practical range of problems needs only the axial capacities in compression and uplift of the isolated piles. An intense program of centrifuge experiments carried out along with different load paths on annular shaped pile groups aimed at validating the equations pertinent to the above solution is presented and discussed. The endpoints of the load paths followed in the centrifuge lie approximately above the analytical failure envelope, giving confidence that the reference equations can be reliably adopted to assess the capacity of a pile group under combined axial-moment loading. Finally, the kinematics of the collapse mechanism observed experimentally is compared to that determined from the application of the reference theory.     

Hydro-mechanical behavior of geogrid reinforced soil barriers of landfill cover systems

This paper examines the hydro-mechanical behavior of soil barriers with and without the inclusion of geogrid reinforcement within the soil barrier of landfill cover systems. The effect of geogrid type on the deformation behavior of the soil barrier subjected to various ranges of distortion levels was examined through centrifuge tests carried out at 40 g. An overburden pressure equivalent to that of landfill cover systems was applied to all the soil barriers tested in this study. The performance of the soil barrier with and without geogrid layer was assessed by measuring water breakthrough at the onset of differential settlements during centrifuge tests. Un-reinforced soil barriers of 0.6 m and 1.2 m thickness were observed to experience single narrow cracks penetrating up to full -depth of soil barriers at distortion levels of 0.056 and 0.069 respectively. In comparison, soil barriers reinforced with geogrids restrained cracking better than unreinforced soil barriers. However, degree of restraining of cracks in the soil barriers was found to be strongly depending on the geogrid type and the thickness of the soil barrier. Limiting distortion levels for 0.6 m and 1.2 m thick soil barriers reinforced with a low strength geogrid was found to be 0.095 and 0.108 respectively. When the soil barrier of both thicknesses was reinforced with a geogrid having relatively high tensile load-strain characteristics, the integrity of the geogrid reinforced soil barrier was observed to be retained even after inducing a distortion level of 0.125. The results from the present study suggest that the hydro-mechanical behavior of the soil barriers can be improved with a suitable geogrid layer having adequate tensile load-strain characteristics.     

粉质黏土深基坑土钉墙支护作用机理模型试验研究

以相似理论为基础,确定模型试验的相似比,然后按照相似比的要求选定相似材料,建立试验所需的土钉墙物理模型。设计合理的测试系统、加载系统模拟基坑开挖、土钉墙支护及降雨过程。测试整个试验过程中的土钉墙的墙顶水平位移、土钉内力、土压力等。试验结果表明,基坑开挖引起土体应力重新分布是影响土钉墙墙顶水平位移变化的主要因素,且每步开挖均都会引起墙顶水平位移呈台阶式增大,在土钉墙的施工阶段墙顶最终水平位移达基坑开挖深度的2.3‰;在墙顶的均布荷载不是很大的情况下,墙顶水平位移会随荷载的增大近似呈线性增大,且降雨是引起粉质黏土基坑位移的重要因素;基坑开挖过程中,墙侧土压力呈现先增大后减小再逐渐增加的变化规律;随基坑开挖深度增加,土钉受力逐渐由尾部向内部发展。     

Centrifuge modeling of the geotextile reinforced slope subject to drawdown

Geotextile is an effective reinforcement approach of slopes that experiences various loads such as drawdown. The geotextile reinforcement mechanism is essential to effectively evaluate the safety of geotextile-reinforced slopes under drawdown conditions. A series of drawdown centrifuge model tests were performed to investigate the deformation and failure behaviors of slopes reinforced with different geotextile layouts. The deformation and failure of unreinforced and reinforced slopes were compared and the geotextile reinforcement was indicated to significantly increase the safety limit and the ductility, reduce the displacement, and change the failure feature of slopes under drawdown conditions. The slopes exhibited remarkable progressive failure, downward from the slope top, under drawdown conditions. The progressive failure was induced by coupling of deformation localization and local failure based on full-field measurements of displacement of slopes subjected to drawdown. The geotextile reinforced the slope by decreasing and uniformizing the slope deformation by the soil-geotextile interaction. Through geotextile displacement analysis, the geotextile-reinforced slope was divided into the anchoring zone and the restricting zone by a boundary that was independent of the decrease of water level. The geotextile restrained the soil in the anchoring zone and the soil restrained the geotextile in the restricting zone. The reinforcement effect was distinct only when the geotextile was long enough to cross the slip surface of the unreinforced slope under drawdown conditions.     

Influence of wire mesh characteristics on reinforced soil model wall failure mechanisms-physical and numerical modelling

This paper presents the details of experimental and numerical analysis performed on three 0.8?m-high reinforced earth model walls with strip footing surcharge near the wall facing. The study investigates how wire mesh strength and geometry affect the failure mechanism. All three walls were nominally identical, except for reinforcement strength and geometry. The displacement field of the entire cross section was captured by high-resolution digital camera through transparent sidewall. The resulting images were analyzed using digital image correlation software. The results indicate that both reinforcement strength and aperture size influence the type of failure mechanism. Numerical modelling was also applied to assess the influence of sidewall friction (3D model) and reinforcement stiffness and strength (2D model) on the failure mechanism of the walls. The parameters for the numerical models were derived from independent tests and results, which were compared with the experimental observations. A good level of agreement with measurements was confirmed, even for the 2D model that excluded sidewall friction.     

水平地震作用下双级加筋土挡墙格栅应变及破裂面分析

基于大型振动台模型试验,研究水平地震荷载作用下双级土工格栅加筋土挡墙的格栅应变和潜在破裂面规律。用福建砂作为回填砂、混凝土砌块作为挡墙和土工格栅作为筋材构成了试验模型。模型高度1.8 m。输入地震波为卧龙波和EL-Centro波,共9个试验工况。试验结果表明,随着峰值加速度增大,应变值增大,且应变最大值点向土体内部扩展。潜在破裂面随峰值加速度增加逐渐向土体内部扩展。综合已有破裂面计算方法,提出了考虑平台宽度的双级折线型破裂面模型,模型可为双级加筋土挡墙设计计算提供参考。     

Finite element limit analysis of load-bearing performance of reinforced slopes using a non-associated flow rule

This paper presents a numerical study on the load-bearing performance of reinforced slopes under footing load using a finite element limit analysis (FELA) method where a non-associated flow rule is assumed in the analysis. The method was validated against results from full-scale model tests and a limit equilibrium (LE) analytical method. A series of parametric analyses was subsequently carried out to examine the influences that the soil dilation angle, footing location, and reinforcement design (i.e. length, tensile strength, and vertical spacing) could have on the load-bearing performance of reinforced slopes. Results indicate that dilation angle has a significant influence on the predicted magnitudes of bearing capacity, slope deformation, and mobilized reinforcement load. The predicted values of bearing capacity using the FELA are smaller than those from the Meyerhof's analytical method for unreinforced semi-infinite foundation, especially for larger friction angle values. Additionally, the ultimate bearing capacity of the slope and its corresponding horizontal deformation increase with the reinforcement tensile strength. Finally, the slip planes under the applied footing load are found to be y-shaped and primarily occur in the upper half of the slope.     

Mechanical role of reinforcement in seismic behavior of steel-strip reinforced earth wall

In the current design practices of steel-strip reinforced earth walls (SSREWs), the length of the reinforcing material is determined based on the equilibrium between the reinforcement tension and the earth pressure acting on the wall. Here, the resistance of the reinforcing material laid in the active failure zone (AFZ) is not considered. Moreover, the mechanical role of the reinforcing material against the integrity of the SSREW has not been sufficiently verified. Regarding the seismic stability of SSREW, although it is investigated by treating the entire reinforced earth wall as a rigid body, this inspection method is for gravity-retaining walls, and the difference in the seismic behavior between the SSREW and the rigid body is not clear. In this study, therefore, dynamic centrifuge model tests on 6 types of SSREWs were conducted to clarify the following items: (1) the basic earthquake behavior of a SSREW, (2) the mechanical role of the reinforcing material laid in the AFZ and (3) the mechanical role of the reinforcing material against the integrity of the SSREW. The results indicated that the reinforcing material laid in the AFZ can restrain the amount of deformation of the wall during earthquakes. Furthermore, the more stable the AFZ is, the smaller the maximum wall displacement will be.     

景观区膨胀土边坡失稳机理分析及其治理方法研究

选择膨胀土滑坡的治理方法时常常忽视其失稳机理的分析。文章根据镇江南徐大道黄山景观区膨胀土滑坡治理方法的分析研究及其工程实践，论证了景观区膨胀土边坡失稳的机理与治理方法的相互对应，并为此类滑坡治理提供了成功的范例和经验。文章提出了导水、排水和抗滑桩支挡是此类膨胀土滑坡治理的关键方法，可以起到保护景观、恢复景观的效果，还提出了对此类膨胀土滑坡治理进一步分析研究的内容。     

Failure of a soft cohesive soil subjected to combined static and cyclic loading

This paper describes the type of failure that a soft cohesive soil can exhibit when acted upon by combined static and cyclic loading. The conclusions are based on the results of a comprehensive experimental research in which, in addition to identification and classification testing, 15 monotonic simple shear tests and 138 cyclic simple shear tests were carried out in which, prior to the cyclic shear stresses, different levels of monotonic shear stresses were applied. Laboratory tests were performed on undisturbed samples taken from the southern area of the port of Barcelona, Spain. In general, the results thus obtained indicate that the undrained shear strength for a given number of cycles is clearly affected by the initial shear stress, as it is explained in this paper.     

抗滑桩加固黏性土坡变形规律的离心模型试验研究

采用土工离心机及专用振动台,进行了静动力加载条件下抗滑桩加固黏性土坡的离心模型试验。测量了试验过程中边坡的位移场和加速度响应的变化过程以及抗滑桩的位移和应变分布。试验结果表明地震过程中土坡的加速度响应自下而上逐渐增大,震后残余变形的水平分量最值相比震前向坡上部移动。静动力加载过程中,抗滑桩内侧土体存在一个面,其内外两侧的土体位移表现出不同的水平位移变化规律,从而可以将抗滑桩加固土坡划分成4个分别具有不同变形特性的区域;同一高程处桩的水平位移大于内侧土体而小于外侧土体;抗滑桩与土发生较复杂的相互作用,并使得土坡的变形趋于均匀。     

低周反复荷载作用下钉节点性能试验研究

介绍了轻型木结构框架剪力墙结构中的面板与木框架钉节点在低周反复荷载作用下的试验研究;对采用不同OSB面板厚度、不同钉边距、顺纹或横纹受力的10组共100个钉节点试件的承载力、破坏模式、延性、刚度退化、强度退化和耗能性能作了比较分析。得到以下结论:钉边距影响钉节点的破坏模式;钉边距和面板厚度的增大有利于提高节点承载力、耗能和变形能力;板厚对顺纹受力试件承载力及横纹受力试件承载力相对关系影响较大,顺纹受力试件的延性与耗能能力相对横纹受力试件较差;钉边距增大使强度退化的速率逐渐降低;各因素对刚度退化的影响可忽略。     

钢筋混凝土剪力墙板的剪切滞回性能试验研究

为提高低矮钢筋混凝土剪力墙板的数值模拟精度,完善混凝土在循环荷载作用下的剪切本构理论,进行6个钢筋混凝土剪力墙板的循环剪切试验,研究配筋率及钢筋角度对钢筋混凝土剪力墙板在循环剪切应力作用下滞回性能及累积耗能能力的影响,得到试件的滞回曲线、骨架曲线、延性、刚度退化、累积耗能能力等。试验结果表明：所有试件均发生剪切破坏模式。配筋率对钢筋混凝土剪力墙板的抗剪承载力有一定影响,对其变形能力影响不明显。钢筋角度对钢筋混凝土剪力墙板的滞回曲线有显著影响,分布钢筋与剪力墙剪切斜裂缝夹角越小,其滞回曲线越饱满,累积塑性剪切角、累积延性比、等效黏滞阻尼比及累积塑性耗能系数越大,但其初始剪切刚度反而越低。该文的试验结果可为完善混凝土的本构理论提供参考。