制冷工质的安全、环境评价指标和数据

本文综述了当前制冷工质的安全、环境评价指标,给出了130多种制冷工质的安全,环境的最新数据。这些制冷工质不仅涵盖了当前使用的制冷剂,而且还有将来可能使用的制冷剂。可为制冷工质替代的科研人员和工商业界选用的新制冷工质参考。     

Characteristics of lithium-ion battery with non-flammable electrolyte

To improve the safety of lithium-ion batteries, we studied non-flammable electrolytes made by adding several types of phosphazene-based flame retardants to conventional electrolytes and evaluated their conductivities, electrochemical characteristics, and the effects of flame retardants in terms of safety. Cell performance tests and abuse tests were also conducted using cylindrical test cells. The conductivity of electrolytes decreased when phosphazene-based flame retardants were added to the conventional electrolytes. The reason for this decrease in conductivity may be the increase in electrolyte viscosity caused by adding flame retardants. The conductivity decrease led to a decrease in cell capacity at high current density and at low temperature. However, the cell capacities at 0.2 CA (CA = 750 mA) and at 25 °C were almost the same as those of cells using conventional electrolytes. Flame tests showed that the electrolytes with flame retardants exhibited flame resistance consistent with UL-94V0. We also carried out several abuse tests to check the safety improvements. Both overcharge tests up to 10 V and heating tests up to 200 °C were completed without any extraordinary heat generation. Heating tests using a burner revealed the self-extinguishing properties of these electrolytes which were gushed out by venting. These results indicate that electrolytes with phosphazene-based flame retardants are effective for making lithium-ion batteries safe.     

Sustainability with prospective refrigerants

This paper first presents a brief historical summary of the recent past and current status of refrigerants, and then proceeds to suggest a simple Second Law‐based approach using the ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle to estimate a refrigerant's performance potential. The resulting performance rankings are then supplemented by additional rankings of the exergy losses in the compressor and in the condenser. These methodologies are then applied to several refrigerants: three natural refrigerants (ammonia, propane, and isobutane), five conventional single‐component halocarbon refrigerants, two conventional blends of halocarbon refrigerants, and three newer refrigerants (fluorinated propene isomers). Generally speaking, the lower pressure refrigerants have better COP and lesser volumetric cooling capacity than the higher pressure refrigerants; whereas, the lower pressure refrigerants have higher penalty factor (measure of condenser exergy losses) than the higher pressure refrigerants. The analyses presented in this paper suggest that to minimize a refrigeration system's overall impact on the environment, the choice of refrigerant should not necessarily be based on a single criterion but rather should be chosen based on the particular application. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

替代制冷剂在不同领域的研究进展

面临传统制冷剂临近淘汰的问题,寻找理想替代制冷剂成为行业内研究的热点。文中归纳了理想制冷剂的替代目标,介绍了R290等在家用空调领域、R1234yf等在车载空调领域、R417C等在热泵热水器领域、R1234ze以及R1234ze与R32等混合制冷剂在大型冷水(热泵)机组领域的替代情况。同时,针对不同制冷剂在替代时的不足提出了不同的解决方案或建议,如用喷气增焓等方法解决R32排气温度高的问题,通过减小管径解决R290制热量略低的问题,而针对R1234yf、R1234ze制热量低的问题提出了增加中冷器或与在该方面有优势的R32制冷剂混合的方法等。通过汇总替代制冷剂在不同应用领域的研究进展,为选择理想替代制冷剂提供了参考。     

Effects of Lewis-acid polymer on the electrochemical properties of alkylphosphate-based non-flammable gel electrolyte

Non-flammable polymer gel electrolytes (NPGE) consisting of 1.0 mol dm⁻³ (=M) LiBF₄/EC + DEC + TEP (55:25:20 volume ratio) + PVdF-HFP (EC: ethylene carbonate, DEC: diethyl carbonate, TEP: triethylphosphate, PVdF-HFP: poly(vinyledenefluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene)) have been developed for rechargeable lithium batteries. The effects of addition of Lewis-acid polymer (LAP) with different mole ratio in NPGE have been studied. The addition of LAP improved physico-chemical properties of NPGE, viz ionic conductivity and lithium ion transport number, as well as mechanical and thermal properties. The ionic conductivity of the gel electrolyte containing LAP reached that of the base solution electrolyte (1.0 M LiBF₄/EC + DEC + TEP (55:25:20)) along with better mechanical properties. Interfacial resistance at Li-metal electrode/NPGE was also improved by introducing LAP in the gel.     

碳氢化合物制冷剂研究综述

讨论了碳氢化合物作为制冷、制热设备工作流体的优缺点，认为在加大对碳氢化合物制冷剂的循环、传热、热力性能等方面研究的同时，应当加快我国安全使用标准的修订，使其符合国际要求。     

Experimental study of nucleate boiling of halocarbon refrigerants on cylindrical surfaces

The present paper reports the results of an experimental investigation of saturated pool boiling of halocarbon refrigerants on cylindrical surfaces of different materials. Experiments covered a wide range of reduced pressures and heat fluxes, being carried out on copper, brass and stainless steel surfaces with different finishing conditions. The obtained results are discussed with regard to the controlled physical and operational parameters of the investigation. An empirical correlation is proposed in terms of reduced pressures. The performance of the correlation can be deemed adequate, considering that it compares well with experimental results of different authors.     

Possible use of non-flammable phosphonate ethers as pure electrolyte solvent for lithium batteries

Dimethyl methyl phosphonate (DMMP) was selected and tested as a non-flammable solvent for primary and secondary lithium batteries, because of its non-flammability, good solvency of lithium salts and appropriate liquidus properties. Experimental results demonstrated that DMMP can solvate considerable amount of commonly used lithium salts to form non-flammable and Li⁺-conducting electrolyte, which has very wide electrochemical window (>5 V vs. Li) and excellent electrochemical compatibility with metallic lithium anode and oxide cathodes. Primary Li–MnO₂ cells using DMMP-based electrolyte showed almost the same discharge performances as those using organic carbonate electrolytes, and also, Li–LiMn₂O₄ cells using DMMP electrolyte exhibited greatly improved cycleability and dischargeability, suggesting a feasible application of this new electrolyte for constructing high performance and non-flammable lithium batteries.     

New fluids as substitute refrigerants for R12

The aim of the present study is to suggest two new fluids as alternatives of R12 in a vapour compression cycle. These fluids are the methyl trifluoromethyl ether (E143a) and the hexafluorocyclopropane (C216), which belong to halogenated derivatives of dimethyl ether and cyclopropane, respectively. The two suggested fluids have low degree of toxicity and a quite short atmospheric life. They also have suitable boiling points and a relatively simple molecular structure.A method of estimation of the thermodynamic properties of E143a and C216 is presented. The theoretical performance of the new fluids are evaluated and compared to those of the R12.     

Thermodynamic analysis of R422 series refrigerants as alternative refrigerants to HCFC22 in a vapour compression refrigeration system

In the present study, the first and second law analysis of R422 series refrigerants (R422A, R422B, R422C and R422D) is presented as an alternative to HCFC22. A computational model, developed in engineering equation solver software, is employed for comparing the performance of these refrigerants in vapour compression refrigeration cycle. The thermodynamic properties of the R422 series refrigerants are computed using Refprop version 7.0. The parameters computed are volumetric cooling capacity (VCC), compressor discharge temperature, coefficient of performance (COP), exergetic efficiency and efficiency defects in system components. The results indicate that VCC, COP and exergetic efficiency for HCFC22 are higher in comparison with R422A, R422B, R422C and R422D. The efficiency defects in the condenser are largest followed by throttle valve, compressor and evaporator. Thus, the design improvement of condenser is of utmost importance to reduce the overall irreversibility and improve the system performance. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A comparison of the operating performance of alternative refrigerants

This paper provides a comparison of the operating performance of three alternative refrigerants for use in a vapour compression refrigeration cycle. The refrigeration capacity and COP of R401A, R290 and R134A were compared with those of R12 when used in a propriety vapour compression refrigeration unit initially designed to operate with R12. The results indicate that the performance of R134a is very similar to that of R12 justifying the claim that it is a drop in replacement for R12 but of the refrigerants tested it gave the poorest performance. When viewed in terms of green house impact however R290 showed the best performance.     

Performance of alternative refrigerants for residential air-conditioning applications

In this study, performances of two pure hydrocarbons and seven mixtures composed of propylene, propane, HFC152a, and dimethylether were measured to substitute for HCFC22 in residential air-conditioners and heat pumps. Thermodynamic cycle analysis was carried out to determine the optimum compositions before testing and actual tests were performed in a breadboard-type laboratory heat pump/air-conditioner at the evaporation and condensation temperatures of 7 and 45 °C, respectively. Test results show that the coefficient of performance of these mixtures is up to 5.7% higher than that of HCFC22. While propane showed a 11.5% reduction in capacity, most of the fluids had a similar capacity to that of HCFC22. For these fluids, compressor-discharge temperatures were reduced by 11–17 °C. For all fluids tested, the amount of charge was reduced by up to 55% as compared to HCFC22. Overall, these fluids provide good performances with reasonable energy-savings without any environmental problem and thus can be used as long-term alternatives for residential air-conditioning and heat-pumping applications.     

喷射制冷系统工质性能综合比较

在比较制冷工质的优劣时,不仅应考虑系统COP,还应考虑循环泵的耗功及压力容器中的压力水平。根据饱和蒸气压将八种环境友好型制冷工质分为四组(R141b&R123,R600a&R142b,R134a&R152a,R290&R717),分组的依据是每组制冷工质的饱和蒸气压曲线非常相近。比较结果表明,R123和R141b、R142b和R600a的热力性能都非常相近,但R123和R600a对环境的影响更小;R152a相比R134a,具有更低的压力和循环泵功、更小的环境影响,但性能系数却更大。     

Experimental study on heat transfer performance of pulsating heat pipe with refrigerants

The effects of different refrigerants on heat transfer performance of pulsating heat pipe(PHP) are investigated experimentally.The working temperature of pulsating heat pipe is kept in the range of 20℃-50℃.The startup time of the pulsating heat pipe with refrigerants can be shorter than 4 min,when heating power is in the range of 10W-100W.The startup time decreases with heating power.Thermal resistances of PHP with filling ratio 20.55% were obviously larger than those with other filling ratios.Thermal resistance of the PHP with R134a is much smaller than that with R404A and R600a.It indicates that the heat transfer ability of R134a is better.In addition,a correlation to predict thermal resistance of PHP with refrigerants was suggested.     

Saturated liquid thermal conductivity correlations for some new refrigerants

This paper presents a set of linear equations describing the temperature dependence of the saturated liquid thermal conductivity covering the region of engineering importance for the new hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) 32, 125, 134a, 143a, 152a and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) 123, 124, 141b and 142b. Available experimental data in the literature have been considered to arrive at a correlation of the form λ=A−BT. It is observed that there exists an appreciable discrepancy between various sources of data in spite of the same purity of samples used and the same measurement technique being adopted. The correlations obtained here could be useful in engineering design applications. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Generalized volumetric behaviour of refrigerants based on a new four-parameter corresponding states correlation

The generalized volumetric behaviour of polar and non-polar refrigerants has been correlated using a new four-parameter corresponding states method. This method results in an accurate representation of the PVT surface for reduced temperatures from 0·55 to 1·62 and for reduced pressures up to 23·5, which covers almost all the range of importance for refrigerant applications. Input parameters required are critical temperature, critical pressure, the acentric factor and a pseudo-polarity factor calculated from the compressibility factor of a saturated liquid at a reduced temperature of 0·7. Three reference fluids are used to evaluate the compressibility factors. Comparison between experimental and calculated volumetric properties shows that highly accurate results are obtained by the new method for 20 polar of non-polar substances that are mainly used as working fluids in refrigeration systems and heat pumps. Average errors in the calculation of compressibility factors are 0·63, 2·24 and 0·53% for the gaseous, critical and liquid regions, respectively. Overall average error is 0·91% for the entire region studied.     

Effect of lubricating oil contamination on evaporation in refrigerants R12 and R22

An investigation has been made into the effect of oil concentration on evaporation heat transfer coefficients in refrigerant-oil mixtures flowing in a horizontal tube. A new correlation is presented for heat transfer coefficients in convective evaporation of refrigerant-oil mixtures that predicts the results of the present study within approximately ±20%. The paper reports measurements of evaporation heat transfer coefficients in refrigerants R12 and R22, both oil-free and with two concentrations of Shell Clavus 32 oil. A 1·8 m long ⅜ in O/D copper tube (8·05 mm I/D) was used, at evaporation temperatures of −5°C, 0°C and +5°C. Heat flux and mixture mass velocity were kept constant at 2500 W m⁻² and 155 kg m⁻² s⁻¹, respectively, and measured coefficients were in the range of 1400 to 3900 W m⁻² K⁻¹. The results showed that, for a complete evaporator, 2% oil may be expected to increase the heat transfer coefficient by 12%, but 10% oil returns the coefficient to oil-free values.     

Condensing heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of hydrocarbon refrigerants

This paper presents the experimental results of condensing heat transfer coefficients and pressure gradients of HC refrigerants (e.g. R-1270, R-290 and R-600a) and R-22 in horizontal double pipe heat exchangers, having two different internal diameters of 12.70 mm and 9.52 mm (OD), respectively. Both the local condensing heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops (inside the tube) of hydrocarbon refrigerants were higher than R-22. The average condensing heat transfer coefficient increased with the mass flux. The experimental heat transfer coefficients agreed with the correlations of Shah, Travis and Cavallini–Zecchin’s to within ±20%. These results can be useful in the design of new heat exchangers involving hydrocarbon refrigerants for future air-conditioning systems.     

Two-phase flow model of refrigerants flowing through helically coiled capillary tubes

This paper presents a numerical study of the flow characteristics of refrigerants flowing through adiabatic helically coiled capillary tubes. The theoretical model is based on conservation of mass, energy and momentum of the fluids in the capillary tube. The two-phase flow model developed was based on the homogeneous flow assumption. The viscosity model was also based on recommendations from the literature. The developed model can be considered as an effective tool for designing and optimizing capillary tubes working with newer alternative refrigerants. The model is validated by comparison with the experimental data of Kim et al. (2002) for R-22, R-407C and R-410A, and Zhou and Zhang (2006) for R-22. The results obtained from the present model show reasonable agreement with the experimental data. The proposed model can be used to design helical capillary tubes working with various refrigerants.     

基于高温工质R245fa的太阳能平板集热器集热过程动态模拟

提出了一种以R245fa为循环工质的气液分离双级太阳能集热系统.对第一级集热系统的集热过程进行了动态数值模拟.结果表明,系统的集热过程受太阳辐射强度的影响最大,受系统肩动温度的影响较小.当系统从环境温度启动达到工质蒸发状态时.减少循环工质的质量或增大集热面积均能有效地减少系统的运行时间,而增大系统集热面积是较佳方案.