城市低收入群体的就业可达性变化研究——以北京为例

职住平衡被新城市主义和精明增长的支持者所倡导,它不仅可以降低小汽车出行,促进城市就业,也关系到社会公平。本文选择北京作为案例,采取网络OD矩阵分析法,以平均通勤时间做测度指标,考察居住在可支付性住房中的低收入群体到商业就业中心的就业可达性。研究发现,采取公交方式付出的通勤时间大约为小汽车通勤方式的2倍,这反映了不同群体的就业可达性确实因交通方式的不同选择而存在差异。从时间变化上看,2004年之后比之前的可支付性住房,无论采取公交还是小汽车出行的平均通勤时间都更长,表明低收入群体在就业可达性上被置于更不利的境地,这将为中国城市未来的可支付性住房布局和交通规划提供借鉴,并进而对城市中弱势群体的居住、就业给予实实在在的关怀。     

Rank-size distribution of urban employment in labour market areas

This paper examines the rank-size distribution of employment in cities considering the designation of unified labour market areas (LMAs). The empirical application refers to Greece and the dataset includes population and employment at the municipal and local commune levels as well as LMAs originating from commuting patterns between communes. It is found that the employment rank-size distribution based on municipalities substantially overestimates the size of smaller peripheral town areas, where labour agglomerations typically take place at finer spatial scales, and underestimates agglomerations around larger urban areas. The use of LMAs as an alternative spatial unit of analysis entails a less even geographical distribution of workers, particularly when adopting a 10% commuting threshold. Moreover, a threshold regression is used to facilitate the distinction between urban and rural areas, specifying the LMA size beyond which substantial urbanisation effects arise and signifying that about 80% of the total employment corresponds to urban employment. The findings can have important implications for the formulation and evaluation of policies to manage labour agglomeration economies in metropolitan and peripheral urban and rural areas for the sustainable and equitable growth of a country.     

中国城市的郊区化与公交导向开发

中国大城市的郊区化使得许多居民被安置在比他们以前居住地可达性更差的地方,而需要采用机动化方式出行。基于对最近才迁居到上海郊区三个街区的居民所进行的当前出行及回顾以前出行的调查数据,研究了迁居至外围地区对就业可达性、通勤方式选择和通勤时耗的影响。发现:迁居后,居民的就业可达性下降很快,与此相伴随的是机动化出行比例及通勤时间的大幅度提高。然而,也发现:迁居到郊区地铁站附近的居民就业可达性下降的较少,而且对于许多居民来说,如此迁居正鼓励居民出行方式从非机动车方式转向公共交通方式。我们得出结论认为:对于把快速郊区化的中国城市引导走向更持续的道路,可寄予公交为导向的开发模式以很高的期望。     

原乡——台湾村规划设计

该文对大陆唯一的台湾原住民村落的历史沿革、现状及规划设计做了简要介绍。从中可以了解台湾村和台湾原住民的历史渊源及台湾村原住民族群意识的觉醒及其社区营造的萌芽。     

城中村改造对原住民职住关系负向影响研究——以太原市为例

城中村改造解决了原住民生活环境脏乱的问题,有效拉动城市经济,但其对原住民职住关系的负面影响普遍存在,引起了社会和学界的广泛关注。以太原市城中村为例,对 1000 名城中村原住民随机开展问卷调查探究,构建了二元 Logistic回归模型,对城中村改造后原住民职住关系发生负向变动关键影响因素进行识别和分析。结果表明,在城中村改造中,家庭劳动人口、学历、职业类型、月收入、安置类型、安置满意度、交通满意度、工作变动情况等 8 个因素对职住关系变化有显著影响,不仅如此,相较于富裕人群,低收入、低学历原住民的职住关系变化最为明显,对此提出了相应的政策建议,为城中村改造安置方案提供参考建议。     

基于通勤特征的深圳市城中村职住关系研究

本文选取深圳市14个居住型城中村作 为案例,基于手机信令数据分析城中村的通勤特 征,探讨其与就业的职住关系模式。研究发现, 城中村的通勤特征呈现出了显著的区位差异性： 从通勤距离看,城边村最长,城内村次之,城外 村最短;从通勤方向看,城内村和区位条件较好 的城边村具有较强的市中心指向,而城外村的 通勤多局限于外围区。结合深圳的就业空间布局 特征,研究归纳了不同区位城中村的职住关系模 式,分析职住空间错配的表现,进而提出优化职 住空间格局的政策建议,包括针对不同区位的城 中村制定差异化的空间引导政策,以及在城市中 心区外培育非工业类就业中心等。     

The post-suburban era comes to Richmond: City decline, suburban transition, and exurban growth

The Richmond, Virginia region is an example of a metropolitan area that has entered the post-suburban era. We define the post-suburban era in terms of inner suburban population loss and relative income decline, suburban employment increase, suburban outcommuting reduction, exurban population and income increase, and farmland conversion.The post-suburban era involves the maturing of many suburbs. Maturing suburbs usually increase employment within their borders. The necessity for suburbanites to commute to central cities declines. However suburban maturity also is associated with diminished capacities. Relative income decline in numerous suburbs is the most prominent feature of diminished suburban capacities. Ironically, the stage for relative suburban income decline is set by suburban job increases which expand the commuting zone 20 or 30 more miles into rural territory, greatly enlarging the zone of exurban population growth.     

Empirical analysis of differential spillover effects within a growth equilibrium framework: Urban–rural versus rural–rural linkages

The employment and population growth equilibrium model is extended to allow for differentiated linkages between rural and urban regions and among rural regions. The model is applied to examine the regional disparities within the rural economy of Northern Ireland between 2001 and 2007. To represent the theoretical idea of commuter shed, commuting data are used to construct the spatial weighting matrix. The results reveal positive rural–urban but negative rural‐rural linkages, suggesting that rural regions benefit from economic growth in urban regions but compete with each other. The direct and indirect spillover effects are shown using simulation examples.     

Land use regulation and intraregional population–employment interaction

Land use regulations often delay residential development processes and increase the development costs, although they contribute to addressing market failures and realizing a well-organized urban spatial structure. Raising barriers to development can prevent households from moving in response to either job relocations or job growth at certain locations in a timely manner through restrictions in the local housing supply. This situation may also result in longer commuting distances, times, and costs, as well as greater spatial mismatches. To examine the possible adverse effects of the regulations, this study analyzes how intraregional population–employment interactions vary across metropolitan areas that substantially differ in the restrictiveness of land use regulations. First, an exploratory correlation analysis of 40 large U.S. metropolitan areas reveals that highly regulated regions, particularly those with lengthy approval processes, are likely to show a lower correlation between census tract-level population and employment changes and an increase in mean commuting time between 1990 and 2000. Secondly, regression analysis suggests that the lower correlation in highly regulated metropolitan areas could be attributed to the limited responsiveness of the population to employment redistribution within the regions.     

Urban growth effects on rural population, export and service employment: evidence from eastern France

This paper examines how the spatial pattern of urban growth in functional economic regions influences the interplay of rural export employment, rural services employment, and population change in rural areas. Using an extension of the Boarnet’s model (Papers in Regional Science 73:135–153, 1994), we find that urban spread effects to rural areas in France are more likely than urban backwash effects, and that spatial urban (both dynamic and static) externalities affect rural population and employment growth. In the functional economic regions where the urban core is declining and the urban fringe is expanding, urban population growth involves an increase in rural export employment, and larger change in service employment favors rural population growth. However, urban export job growth reduces the growth in rural service jobs and expanding urban service jobs reduce rural export jobs, suggesting that expanding urban employment opportunities draws employees away from proximate rural communities. Conversely, where both urban core and fringe are growing, we observe an urban spread effect from the urban export sector to rural services—an export base multiplier effect with a spatial dimension—and from urban population growth to rural service employment.

The Effects of Transport Accessibility and Jobs–Housing Balance on Commuting Time: Evidence from Beijing

Increases in commuting time have caused serious social and environmental problems in a physically fragmentizing mega-city. Some policy-makers attend to solve commuting-related problems through alternative land-use policies, in particular mixed land use and multi-functional structures, rather than mere transport programmes. This paper investigates the effects of the jobs–housing balance on commuting time at the community level in Beijing. The paper puts forward a new indicator of home-based job proximity to measure the jobs–housing balance. A 1500 household-based travel data set was used to aggregate the average commuting time of the 60 communities studied. Based on the results of a correlation analysis, findings suggest that home-based job proximity has the strongest significantly negative relationship with average community commuting time. In fact, the results of a two-step regression analysis suggest that 68.6% of the changes in average commuting time are explained overwhelmingly by the home-based job proximity variable. However, there are no significant associations between average commuting time and the variables of local public transport accessibility and private vehicle transport accessibility. Obviously, current urban policy, which relies predominantly on ambitious and expensive programmes of transport infrastructure provision must be rethought in Beijing. Improving the jobs–housing balance through the implemention of compact land development may be an alternative to reducing overall commuting duration.     

Determinants of fertility in urban and rural Kenya: estimates and a simulation of the impact of education policy

Fertility behavior and population growth and its impact on economics in Kenya are a concern because of recent trends. The aim of this research study was to examine the impact of multiple factors on fertility in urban and rural areas based on the 1984 Kenya contraceptive Prevalence Survey. Simulation models were used to project the number of births expected with the current educational program. The expectation was that increasing female education in rural areas would have an impact on birth probabilities. Policy implications are discussed in terms of increasing educational expenditures, particularly for rural women. The empirical model selected was based on theories on proximate determinants, demographic effects, and neoclassical models. A probit model was used to estimate whether or not a woman had a child in the year preceding the survey. Explanatory variables were economic (female employment and years of schooling), biological (mother's age and child mortality), and cultural (marital state, number of live births, and religion). The sample included 6405 women aged 15-49 years. Married urban women were 37% more likely than unmarried urban women to have given birth. Married rural women in monogamous marriages were 23% more likely to have given birth than their unmarried counterparts. The number in a marital union of wives did not affect the probability of birth in urban areas; the effect was quite small in rural areas. Probability of birth increased until age 25 in urban areas and to age 28 in rural areas. Previous live births had a small impact, and the inhibiting effect of an additional child is 2.7 times larger in urban than in rural areas. Only in urban areas did employment reduce the probability of a birth (by 7.4%). In rural areas, increases in education after the primary level were related to a decline in the probability of a birth (for a 26-year old woman there is a reduction in the probability of .18). The fertility rate of a woman completing secondary school was 3.5 and 7.8 for a woman completing primary school. There were no differences in urban Nairobi and Mombasa. The total fertility rate should decline by 25% between 1984 and 2014, and should fall further based on educational increases which affect family planning use, employment, and infant mortality. By 2014, the savings in education and related expenses for reduction in births of 5.8 million will be considerable.     

Job accessibility and job‐education mismatch in the metropolitan area of Barcelona

This paper analyses the effect of job accessibility on job‐education mismatch in the metropolitan area of Barcelona with regard to both public and private transport. Transit accessibility is defined in terms of the spatial distribution of employment relative to travel time by public transport, whereas accessibility by private transport is approximated by car availability. The results obtained from a joint model for car ownership, employment selectivity and mismatch confirm that car availability matters for job‐education mismatch. Moreover, public transport connectivity to job locations favours the matching between schooling and occupation in the urban labour market.     

Walled cities and urban density in China

We analyse a sample of nearly 300 prefectural-level cities in China, among which about half historically had city walls. We document that cities that had walls in late imperial China have higher population and employment density today, despite that their walls have long gone. Using data from various sources, we test whether a historically walled city's higher density can be explained by a historical urban core, a different industry composition, a different local geography, a compact urban shape, or more valuable rural land in surrounding areas. We find that historically walled cities still have higher density after taking into account all of these factors, which we interpret as evidence of economic persistence.     

The Connection Between Public Transit and Employment

Urban transit systems in most American cities…have become a genuine civil rights issue-and a valid one-because the layout of rapid-transit systems determines the accessibility of jobs to the Black community. If transportation systems in American cities could be laid out so as to provide an opportunity for poor people to get meaningful employment, then they could begin to move into the mainstream of American life. A good example of this problem is my home city of Atlanta, where the rapid-transit system has been laid out for the convenience of the white upper-middle-class suburbanites who commute to their jobs downtown. The system has virtually no consideration for connecting the poor people with their jobs. There is only one possible explanation for this situation, and that is the racist blindness of city planners. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1986, pp. 325-326)

Much attention is being paid to the role of public transit in employment-related mobility for urban residents, yet there is very little evidence of the degree to which one affects the other. Little research has focused on how labor participation is affected by increases in urban workers' access to public transportation. Research on the spatial mismatch hypothesis has dealt with the relationship between labor participation and the spatial separation of workers' residences from suitable jobs; however, most analyses concentrate on commuting time or distance as a function of auto use. Few studies have considered the impacts of public transportation on labor participation. This article describes a study analyzing the locations and employment characteristics of workers with varying levels of access to public transit. Using census data and a variety of spatial measures generated by a geographic information system (GIS), a two-stage least squares regression was used to estimate the relationship of access to public transit with labor participation levels for Portland, Oregon, and Atlanta, Georgia. The results suggest that access to public transit is a significant factor in determining average rates of labor participation within these two cities.     

大数据背景下北京市大型居住区通勤绿道选线研究

近年来,随着城市交通拥堵和环境污染等问题的日益凸显,自行车作为通勤出行方式的地位逐渐上升,通勤者对建立不受机动车干扰的、连续的、具备通勤功能的城市绿色道路的需求也在不断增加。绿色道路的线路建设不仅要保障空间可实施性和交通环境质量,还要与居民的通勤出行需求紧密结合,实现绿道使用的综合效益最大化。基于此,研究以北京市回龙观地区为对象,采用与居民出行行为有关的数据,识别郊区居民中短程通勤特征,划定主要通勤范围,探究基于居民真实出行的多源大数据的选线方法,通过基于通勤出行需求强度与吸引强度的绿道节点甄选与路段适宜性的评价分析。最后,通过GIS网络分析功能进行最优线路选择,并结合城市公园、绿地、河流等资源的分布情况进行修正,形成一条满足居民通勤需求的、完整互联的、安全的且具备较强实施性的绿色通道。最终达到降低居民通勤时耗、提升区域可达性、完善城市慢行系统网络的目的。     

Amenities and urban residential structure: An amenity-embedded model of residential choice

The basic model of residential choice, which has been established by generalizing Von Thünen's concept to an urban context, states that the equilibrium structure of residential land use is determined by the trade-off between accessibility and space. The willingness to sacrifice space for accessibility differs between households and depends on household income. The equilibrium land use is the outcome of the interplay between the income elasticity of space consumption and the income elasticity of commuting outlays. The primary purpose of this article is to extend the basic model by incorporating a location-dependent quality of the environment. The proposed model examines the locational consequences of household choice as influenced by a complicated interplay among three factors: the income elasticity of housing demand, the income elasticity of commuting costs, and the location-dependent amenity schedule. The equilibrium land use is contrasted for two types of cities: the case 1 city in which the level of amenities increases toward the urban fringe, and the case 2 city in which the level of amenities is assumed to decrease as one moves toward the urban fringe. Received: 2 August 1999 / Accepted: 18 September 2000     

Land use,mobility and accessibility in dualistic urban China: A case study of Guangzhou

The concept of accessibility has been widely employed to understand the jobs-housing relationship in US cities. However, relevant studies in Chinese cities are rare. Little attention has been paid to accessibility modelling, variations among population groups, and the influence of land use arrangement and transport infrastructure in Chinese cities. To address this deficiency, the present paper provides measures on the job accessibility of workers with different hukou status in Guangzhou. The study yields the following findings: 1) inner-city districts have better job accessibility compared to suburban areas; 2) local hukou workers have significantly higher job accessibility than non-local hukou workers; 3) job suburbanization seems not to be effective in improving job accessibility or narrowing the gap between local and non-local hukou workers; and 4) investment in public transport would significantly improve the mobility and job accessibility of non-local hukou workers and help to alleviate accessibility inequality.     

Smart Cities and Mobility: Does the Smartness of Australian Cities Lead to Sustainable Commuting Patterns?

ABSTRACT

Smart cities have become a popular concept because they have the potential to create a sustainable and livable urban future. Smart mobility forms an integral part of the smart city agenda. This paper investigates “smart mobility” from the angle of sustainable commuting practices in the context of smart cities. This paper studies a multivariate multiple regression model within a panel data framework and examines whether increasing access to broadband Internet connections leads to the choice of a sustainable commuting mode in Australian local government areas. In this case, access to the Internet is used as a proxy for determining urban smartness, and the use of different modes of transport including working at home is used to investigate sustainability in commuting behavior. The findings show that an increasing access to broadband Internet reduces the level of working from home, public transport use, and active transport use, but increases the use of private vehicles, perhaps to overcome the fragmentation of work activities the Internet creates. How to overcome the need for car-based travel for fragmented work activities while increasing smartness through the provisioning of broadband access should be a key smart city agenda for Australia to make its cities more sustainable.     

A Spatial Analysis of Job Openings and Access in a U.S. Metropolitan Area

This article presents a study of spatial distribution of job openings and spatial variation in job accessibility in the Boston Metropolitan Area. The most striking finding is that despite decades of employment decentralization, job openings suitable for less-educated job seekers are still relatively concentrated in the central city. This is due to the fact that the great majority of job openings are vacancies resulting from turnover, the spatial concentration of which reflects the spatial concentration of current employment. A related finding is that for a given transportation mode, less-educated job seekers who reside in the central city still have, on average, somewhat better access to job openings than those who reside at the periphery of the metropolitan area. However, accessibility differentials among locations are small as compared to accessibility differentials between transportation modes. For job seekers who can travel by car, the majority of residential locations will allow them to have an access level higher than the average. For job seekers who depend on public transit, on the other hand, very few residential locations will allow them to have an above-average access level. These findings have important policy implications.