Determination of in-situ stress direction from cleat orientation mapping for coal bed methane exploration in south-eastern part of Jharia coalfield, India

Accurate prediction of in-situ stress directions plays a key role in any Coal Bed Methane (CBM) exploration and exploitation project in order to estimate the production potential of the CBM reservoirs. Permeability is one of the most important factors for determination of CBM productivity. The coal seams in Jharia coalfield generally show low permeability in the range of 0.5 md to 3 md. To estimate the in-situ stress direction in the study area, an attempt has been made to undertake the cleat orientation mapping of four regional coal seams of two underground coal mines located at south-eastern part of Jharia coalfield, India. Cleat orientation mapping is critical to determine the maximum principal compressive horizontal stress (S_H) direction for CBM exploration and exploitation, which in turn controls the direction of maximum gas or water flow though coal beds. From the field study it is found that the average face and butt cleat azimuths are towards N15°W and N75°E respectively. Average permeability of the four above-mentioned major coal seams has been calculated from well logs of nine CBM wells distributing over an area of 7.5 km², adjacent to the underground mines. The cleat orientations are congruous with the regional lineament pattern and fits well with the average permeability contour map of the study area to infer the orientation of in-situ maximum horizontal stress. Goodness of fit for the exponential regressions between vertical stress and permeability for individual coal seams varies between 0.6 and 0.84. The cleat orientation is further validated from the previous fracture analysis using FMI well log in Parbatpur area located southern part of the Jharia coalfield. The major coal seams under the study area exhibit directional permeability, with the maximum permeability, oriented parallel to the direction of face cleat orientation.     

Control and prevention of gas outbursts in coal mines, Riosa–Olloniego coalfield, Spain

Underground coal mines have always had to control the presence of different gases in the mining environment. Among these gases, methane is the most important one, since it is inherent to coal. Despite of the technical developments in recent decades, methane hazards have not yet been fully avoided. This is partly due to the increasing depths of modern mines, where methane emissions are higher, and also to other mining-related circumstances, such as the increase in production rates and its consequences: difficulties in controlling the increasing methane levels, increasing mechanization, the use of explosives and not paying close attention to methane control systems.The main purposes of this paper are to establish site measurements using some critical parameters that are not part of the standard mining-control methods for risk assessment and to analyze the gas behavior of subvertical coal seams in deep mines in order to prevent gas incidents from occurring. The ultimate goal is the improvement in mining conditions and therefore in safety conditions.For this purpose, two different mines were instrumented for mine control and monitoring. Both mines belong to the Riosa–Olloniego coalfield, in the Asturias Central Basin, Spain and the areas instrumented are mined via subhorizontal sublevels at an actual depth of around 1000 m under the overburden of Mount Lusorio.During this research, a property favoring gas outbursts was site measured for the first time in an outburst-prone coal (8th Coalbed), gas pressure and its variations, which contributed to complete the data available from previous characterizations and to set some guidelines for assessing the potential outburst-prone areas. A gas-measurement-tube set has been designed for measuring gas pressure as well as its variation over time as a result of nearby workings and to calculate permeability.The paper establishes the effect of overlapping of works, but it also shows the efficacy of two preventive measures to be applied: high pressure water infusion and the exploitation of a protective coal seam (7th Coalbed), that must be mined preferably two complete sublevels before commencing the advance in the outburst-prone coalbed. Both measures constitute an improvement in the mining sequence and therefore in safety, and should be completed with a systematic measurement to control the risk: gas pressure in the 8th Coalbed in the area of influence of other workings, to establish the most suitable moment to renew the advance. Further researches could focus on ascertaining the permeability, not only in mined areas but also in areas of the mine that are still not affected by mining work and on tuning more finely the ranges of influence of overstress time and overlap distance of the workings of the 7th Coalbed in the 8th Coalbed.     

塔里木盆地北缘库拜煤田陡倾斜煤储层纳米孔隙特征及其地质控制

近年来新疆塔里木盆地北缘库拜煤田陡倾斜煤储层成为我国煤层气勘探开发新热点,部分煤层气井相继取得高产。本次采集了库拜煤田陡倾斜储层不同深度及煤体结构共61块煤样,通过煤岩组分与成熟度、低温液氮吸附、等温吸附等实验,分析了陡倾斜煤储层纳米孔隙结构特征及其地质控制。结果表明：受控于南天山山前冲断带内部不同部位剪切及挤压强度的非均质性,库拜煤田陡倾斜储层纳米孔隙体积随深度增加先增大后减小;随煤体破坏程度的增大,煤岩纳米孔隙体积相应增加且其孔隙结构复杂程度趋于复杂;陡倾斜储层倒转位置煤体变形相对增强,构造煤发育程度较高,煤岩纳米孔隙体积以及比表面积相应增大,甲烷吸附能力强、含气性较好。研究成果对陡倾斜储层煤层气勘探和开发具有重要指导意义。     

淮北煤田祁东煤矿煤和瓦斯中稳定碳同位素分布特征及其地质成因

对淮北煤田祁东煤矿6个煤层的24个煤样和12个气样的稳定有机碳同位素分析,分别研究了煤和瓦斯中碳同位素的分布特征和变化趋势,为不同煤层及瓦斯源分析提供理论依据。研究表明：祁东煤矿煤的δ¹³C为-25.11‰~-22.76‰,6-1煤层至9煤层碳同位素均值呈波动变化,可能受当时成煤时期沉积环境的影响;瓦斯的δ¹³C₁为-63.65‰~-52.51‰,表现出次生生物成因气的变化特征,二氧化碳碳同位素特征（-22.61‰~-17.96‰）表明其均是煤热解而来。     

Structural controls on fractured coal reservoirs in the southern Appalachian Black Warrior foreland basin

Coal is a nearly impermeable rock type for which the production of fluids requires the presence of open fractures. Basin-wide controls on the fractured coal reservoirs of the Black Warrior foreland basin are demonstrated by the variability of maximum production rates from coalbed methane wells. Reservoir behavior depends on distance from the thrust front. Far from the thrust front, normal faults are barriers to fluid migration and compartmentalize the reservoirs. Close to the thrust front, rates are enhanced along some normal faults, and a new trend is developed. The two trends have the geometry of conjugate strike-slip faults with the same σ₁ direction as the Appalachian fold-thrust belt and are inferred to be the result of late pure-shear deformation of the foreland. Face cleat causes significant permeability anisotropy in some shallow coal seams but does not produce a map-scale production trend.     

新密煤田瓦斯动力现象分析

为研究新密煤田发生低瓦斯含量、低瓦斯压力瓦斯动力现象的原因,解决低指标瓦斯动力现象给生产带来的危害,运用区域构造演化理论分析了新密煤田自印支期至今的构造演化,统计分析了区域内38次瓦斯动力现象和167个采样地点的煤岩坚固性系数f值,结合《防治煤与瓦斯突出细则》及常规实践经验,与新密煤田瓦斯动力现象中煤层瓦斯含量、瓦斯压力做了对比。结果表明,区域内的瓦斯动力现象表现为低瓦斯含量、低瓦斯压力,f值多在0.3以下;基于综合假说机理的研究表明,构造煤普遍发育、煤岩坚固性系数f值小是该现象的深层原因。     

Inducing fractures and increasing cleat apertures in a bituminous coal under isotropic stress via application of microwave energy

For the degassing of coal seams, either prior to mining or in un-minable seams to obtain coalbed methane, it is the combination of cleat frequency, aperture, connectivity, stress, and mineral occlusions that control permeability. Unfortunately, many potential coalbeds have limited permeability and are thus marginal for economic methane extraction. Enhanced coalbed methane production, with concurrent CO₂ sequestration is also challenging due to limited CO₂ injectivity. Microwave energy can, in the absence of confining stress, induce fractures in coal. Here, creation of new fractures and increasing existing cleat apertures via short burst, high-energy microwave energy was evaluated for an isotropically stressed and an unstressed bituminous coal core. A microwave-transparent argon gas pressurized (1000 psi) polycarbonate vessel was constructed to apply isotropic stress simulating ~ 1800 foot depth. Cleat frequency and distribution was determined for the two cores via micro-focused X-ray computed tomography. Evaluation occurred before and after microwave exposure with and without the application of isotropic stress during exposure. Optical microscopy was performed for tomography cleat aperture calibration and also to examine lithotypes influences on fracture: initiation, propagation, frequency, and orientation. It was confirmed that new fractures are induced via high-energy microwave exposure in an unconfined bituminous core and that the aperture increased in existing cleats. Cleat/fracture volume, following microwave exposure increased from 1.8% to 16.1% of the unconfined core volume. For the first time, similar observations of fracture generation and aperture enhancement in coal were also determined for microwave exposure under isotropic stress conditions. An existing cleat aperture, determined from calibrated X-ray computed tomography increased from 0.17 mm to 0.32 mm. The cleat/fracture volume increased from 0.5% to 5.5%. Optical microscopy indicated that fracture initiated likely occurred in at least some cases at fusain microlithotypes. Presumably this was due to the open pore volumes and potential for bulk water presence or steam pressure buildup in these locations. For the major induced fractures, they were mostly horizontal (parallel to the bedding plane) and often contained within lithotype bands. Thus it appears likely that microwaves have the potential to enhance the communication between horizontal wellbore and existing cleat network, in coal seams at depth, for improved gas recovery or CO₂ injection.     

Uncertainty of gas saturation estimates in a subbituminous coal seam

To assess the commercial viability of a coalbed methane prospect two of the key geological parameters measured are gas content (desorbed gas) and gas holding capacity (adsorption capacity). These two measures, together with reservoir pressure, give an estimate of the gas saturation of the reservoir. Typically gas saturation has been assessed by collecting one adsorption isotherm sample and assuming it is representative of the whole seam reservoir conditions. This study addresses that assumption.To understand the level of variation, and thus the inherent uncertainty in saturation, one core (Jasper-1) from the Huntly coalfield in New Zealand was analysed in detail. Ten samples (representing the whole coal seam) were placed into gas desorption canisters and desorbed for ten days and then analysed for adsorption capacity. Desorption analyses for total measured gas content (average in-situ basis) ranged from 2.32 to 2.89 m³/t (standard deviation (sd) = 0.18) and gas adsorptive capacity at 4 MPa (average in-situ basis) from 2.11 to 3.51 m³/t (sd = 0.38) resulting in saturations ranging from 66% to 120% (sd = 15).Determination of how many samples are required to make a realistic assessment of average reservoir properties requires a consideration of: (i) the level of accuracy desired, (ii) the limit of accuracy possible, which is governed by the magnitude of experimental error, and (iii) the innate variability of the seam. It was found that a minimum of five samples each for adsorption and desorption were required in order to significantly decrease the uncertainty in gas saturation estimates for a subbituminous coal.     

岩浆侵入煤层中锑的赋存特征——以淮北卧龙湖矿为例

为探讨岩浆蚀变作用对煤层中锑赋存特征的影响,系统采集安徽淮北煤田卧龙湖煤矿岩浆侵入煤层侵入岩和全煤层样品共12个,利用原子荧光光谱法（AFS）测定样品中Sb含量,并对煤质参数进行分析。结果表明：卧龙湖煤矿岩浆侵入区煤表现为超低挥发分,中等灰分,特低硫的特点,煤中的硫主要以有机硫和黄铁矿硫存在。受岩浆热液影响,煤中灰分增加,挥发分减少;岩浆蚀变煤层中锑明显富集,算术平均值达到10.48 mg/kg,且侵入岩上方煤中Sb的平均含量明显增高,煤岩接触带位置Sb的含量达到最高值（13.93 mg/kg）;岩浆蚀变煤中的锑主要以无机结合态形式存在（相关系数r为0.74）,有机硫与煤中Sb呈显著负相关（相关系数r为-0.60）。岩浆侵入作用导致卧龙湖煤矿煤的煤质特征及煤层中锑的赋存方式受到不同程度的影响,研究结果可为特殊地质作用下煤中锑的环境地球化学特征提供参考。     

Changes of acoustic emission and strain in hard coal during gas sorption–desorption cycles

The cylindrical coal samples were subjected to three successive cycles of sorption–desorption processes of a single gas (CO₂, CH₄). Acoustic emission (AE) and strains were simultaneously recorded during the sorption and desorption processes.Tests were conducted on medium-rank coal from the Upper Silesia Basin, Poland. Follow-up tests for gas sorption–desorption consistently showed significant changes of AE characteristics for re-runs on the same sample. The AE level decreased in each successive test. The most spectacular differences were observed between AE generated during the first cycle of gas sorption and the subsequent cycle. This phenomenon could be due to structural changes in the coal taking place substantially on its first exposure to the sorbate. The AE results indicate, that each cycle of gas sorption–desorption was run on the same coal though with a somewhat different structure.In those tests, the swelling of coal by CO₂ or/and CH₄ was anisotropic (greater in the direction perpendicular to the bedding plane than parallel) in each cycle of the gas sorption–desorption process.     

钻孔瓦斯压力恢复法求解煤层透气性系数

煤层透气性系数可以准确评估煤层瓦斯的可抽采性能,指导煤层增透改造工艺。借鉴油气试井中的压力恢复曲线相关方法求解煤层透气性系数,建立适应于煤矿井下钻孔瓦斯流动的理论模型。采用半对数直线段分析方法,利用双对数、半对数压力恢复特征曲线,合理确定压力恢复曲线中期直线段起始点位置,准确计算中期直线段的斜率大小,继而计算煤层透气性系数。通过现场实例验证,并和径向流量法计算结果对比,其相对误差为13%~36.6%,平均误差为24.62%,验证了压力恢复曲线求解煤层透气性系数方法的可行性。     

大同煤田北部中侏罗统煤中伴生元素分布特征及其地质意义

为研究大同煤田中侏罗统煤中伴生元素地球化学特征及地质意义,应用电感耦合等离子体质谱（ICP-MS）、X射线衍射法（XRD）、光学电子显微镜和扫描电子显微镜（SEM）等测试方法分析煤田北部9个煤层中伴生元素含量和赋存特征。结果表明：煤中微量元素含量低,其有益元素（Li、Ga）含量均远低于边界品位,不具伴生成矿开发潜力,但2号煤中Co与Zn、9号煤中Tl和11-2号煤中Be等有害元素较为富集,是世界煤平均值的3倍以上,其环境影响值得关注。煤中主要矿物是高岭石与石英,高岭石主要充填在结构镜质体中,指示其同生成因,石英往往具有很好的晶型,指示其自生成因;少量的黄铁矿和方解石充填在显微裂隙中,指示其后生成因;磷灰石与有机质结合。煤中微量元素Ni和Mo可能主要以有机质结合态存在,其他元素主要赋存在无机矿物中,Si主要以石英形式存在,部分Si和Al以及Li、Cr、Ga和Nb存于黏土矿物中,Fe和Mn以及Cd、Zn、Tl赋存于黄铁矿中;Ca和Mg以及Co主要赋存在碳酸盐矿物中;P、Be、Sr和Ba可能存在磷灰石中;Rb赋存在石盐类矿物中。垂向上看,大同组存在2个沉积旋回,每个沉积旋回由下至上,水动力条件逐渐降低,水体由浅到深,陆源碎屑供给越来越少,这2个旋回间可能经历了较强的地质作用。总体看,在成煤期,随沉积作用的进行,聚煤盆地中碎屑物质输入逐渐减少,活性物质逐渐增加。     

青海木里煤田天然气水合物特征与成因

青海木里煤田成功钻获天然气水合物实物样品,使我国成为世界上首次在中低纬度冻土区发现天然气水合物的国家。通过对钻获天然气水合物样品的分析,以及对以往异常可燃气体涌出钻孔的测井曲线的重新解释和对比分析,初步确定天然气水合物赋存于中侏罗统江仓组油页岩段的细粉砂岩夹层内的孔隙和裂隙中。研究结果显示,天然气水合物中的气体以重烃类为主,甲烷达52%~68%;其δ¹³C值为-50.5‰(PDB标准),并具有δ^l3C_l<δ¹³C₂<δ¹³C₃<δ¹³iC₄<δ^l3nC₄的特征,其δD值分别为-266‰和-262‰(VSMOW标准),显示出明显的深部热解气特征。结合木里煤田煤层气地质特征,认为煤层气是木里煤田天然气水合物的主要来源,并将其命名为“煤型气源”天然气水合物。     

永城煤田二叠纪网状河流沉积体系

永城煤田二叠系三、四煤组地层中,沉积相的空间配置、砂体特点等均显示出网状河流沉积体系的特征。这里的网状河流体系是在盆地整体沉降的背景中,在地形平坦、坡降低的三角洲平原上,受同沉积构造控制发育起来的。同沉积断裂和坳陷活动创造了长期相对低洼、可供河道发育的地形条件,加上繁茂的植被、沉降速度与补偿速度大体均衡、突发性海侵等因素的共同影响,网状水道得以较长时期地稳定发育。     

宁武煤田北部构造特征及其控煤作用

为查明宁武煤田北部构造特征及其对石炭-二叠系的控煤作用,结合野外露头、钻孔岩性、三维地震等资料,分析了宁武煤田构造区带划分、地层结构、构造演化及应力场特征,明确了宁武煤田北部主力煤层的控煤构造。研究表明：晚古生代以来,宁武煤田主要经历了印支、燕山和喜马拉雅3期构造运动,其中燕山期构造最为复杂,具有幕式、挤压伸展交替演化,控制了煤田现今的构造格局;煤田边界主要受NE—近NS向逆冲断裂带控制,内部由平鲁向斜、朔县向斜和宁武向斜3个赋煤区构成。煤田内发育NE—NEE、近NS向和近EW向正断层,且具有叠加改造和差异性分布的特征,平面多呈斜交、平行分布,垂向多为垒堑、顺向和反向断阶构造样式,共同控制了不同井田的煤层赋存稳定区。     

木里煤田西部聚煤期层序古地理特征与聚煤作用

为了深入认识木里煤田煤系沉积环境及聚煤规律,在已有研究成果的基础上通过野外踏勘及钻井等资料分析,对木里煤田西部地区聚煤期早-中侏罗世含煤岩系进行了层序古地理特征及聚煤作用分析。结果表明：木里煤田西部地区中-下侏罗统可划分为4个3级层序;中侏罗世早-中期（即层序2-层序3沉积期）是整个木里煤田西部的主要聚煤期,沉积相多以辫状河三角洲平原、三角洲前缘和浅湖相为主,物源主要来自于NE向;其中以中侏罗世早期的聚煤环境最好,形成了聚乎更聚煤中心;中侏罗世中期成煤环境相对变差,煤层厚度变薄层数增多,聚煤中心西移至雪霍立、哆嗦公玛。沉积相及古地理特征对聚煤作用具有显著的影响和控制,这一认识对木里煤田西部煤及煤系矿产勘查开发具有重要指导意义。     

SF_6气体示踪法测定低透气性高瓦斯煤层瓦斯抽放半径

针对目前应用较多的瓦斯抽放半径测定方法——相对瓦斯压力测定法与实际情况偏差较大问题,以神华乌海能源公司平沟煤矿16号低透气性高瓦斯煤层为研究对象,在井下1606工作面施工瓦斯抽放试验钻孔,采用SF6气体示踪法测定工作面瓦斯的抽放半径,并比较了不同抽放半径的瓦斯抽放效果。实测结果表明,SF6气体示踪法所测定的瓦斯抽放半径使瓦斯抽采效率显著提高,该方法为煤层预抽瓦斯钻孔间距的设计提供了依据,可以在低透气性高瓦斯煤层的瓦斯抽放半径测定中推广使用。     

华北地区京西煤田侏罗纪煤层中伊利石矿物学特征及成因

为了探讨伊利石对煤化作用和沉积环境的指示作用,以华北地区京西煤田侏罗纪煤层夹矸为研究对象,采用X射线衍射方法（XRD）和X射线荧光方法（XRF）分别测定煤层夹矸的矿物组成和化学组成,研究夹矸中伊利石矿物学特征及成因。结果表明,京西煤田侏罗纪煤层夹矸主要由伊利石、绿泥石和石英组成,其中,伊利石质量分数平均为62.92%。将XRD数据和XRF数据进行对比分析,计算得到伊利石平均化学式为（K_0.37（NH₄）_0.03）Al₂（Si_3.60Al_0.40O₁₀）（OH）₂。京西煤田煤层夹矸中伊利石主要由高岭石转化而来,伊利石的NH₄⁺占层间阳离子的比例具有随沉积古盐度升高而逐渐升高的趋势,n（Si）/n（Al）^Ⅳ具有随煤化程度升高而逐渐降低的趋势,这表明京西煤田侏罗纪煤层夹矸中的伊利石矿物学特征对沉积环境和煤化作用具有一定的指示作用。     

碎软低渗煤层煤层气直井间接压裂技术及应用实践

为了解决碎软低渗煤层压裂改造过程中煤粉产出和压裂裂缝不易延伸的技术瓶颈,采用地应力和数值模拟分析方法,对煤层气井间接压裂适应性及裂缝展布规律进行分析研究,并在湖南洪山殿矿区进行了间接压裂工程实践。结果表明：间接压裂可有效提高碎软低渗煤层的压裂改造效果,增加压裂裂缝长度,当顶底板为脆性砂岩时,更加有利于间接压裂;洪山殿矿区HC01井取得了单井产气量1 850 m³/d的良好产气效果,表明\