An intercomparison of hurricane forecasts using SSM/I and TRMM rain rate algorithm(s)

Summary Three different Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) rain rate algorithms are evaluated as a means of improving both the physical initialization and the hurricane forecast output of the Florida State University Global Spectral Model (FSU GSM). These SSM/I rain rate algorithms are known as Cal/Val, NESDIS, and GPROF 4.0. In addition the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) TMI – 2A12 rain rate algorithm is validated, and its impact on FSU GSM hurricane forecasts is also studied. Validation results of the Cal/Val rain rate algorithm show a bias toward gross underestimation. Both the NESDIS and GPROF 4.0 algorithms produce robust rain rates, in agreement with surface based observations. However, the NESDIS SSM/I rain rate algorithm proves to be the most consistent and accurate in this study. Surface rain rates as estimated by the TRMM/TMI – 2A12 algorithm can be inconsistent, mainly due to satellite observational coverage gaps. The impact of different magnitudes of rain on the FSU GSM is significant. In theory, the application of more accurate and consistent rain rates should produce an improvement in model-calculated latent heat release and cumulus parameterization. The net effect is a more representative, modeled global circulation and improved hurricane track prediction. This research has shown that the use of NESDIS SSM/I rain rates in the physical initialization of the FSU GSM provides the most accurate hurricane track forecasts. Received July 22, 1999 Revised November 28, 1999     

Ensemble sensitivity analysis of an extreme rainfall event over the Himalayas in June 2013

Forecast Sensitivity of an extreme rainfall event over the Uttarakhand state located in the Western Himalayas is investigated through Ensemble-based Sensitivity Analysis (ESA). ESA enables the assessment of forecast errors and its relation to the flow fields through linear regression approach. The ensembles are initialized from an Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF) Data Assimilation in Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model. ESA is then applied to evaluate the dynamics and predictability at two different days of the extreme precipitation episode. Results indicate that the precipitation forecast over Uttarakhand is sensitive to the mid-tropospheric trough and moisture fields for both the days, in general. The day 1 precipitation shows negative sensitivity to the trough over upstream regions of the storm location while in day 2, the sensitive region is found to be located over the southward intruded branch of the mid–tropospheric trough. Perturbations introduced in the initial conditions (IC) over the most sensitive region over the west of the storm location indicate significant variations in the forecast location of precipitation. IC perturbed experiments show that the perturbation amplitude is correlated linearly with predicted change in precipitation, which becomes nonlinear as the forecast length increases. ESA performed on convection-permitting ensembles show that precipitation over the Uttarakhand is mostly non-convective. However, when the location of the response function box is moved north-westward of the Uttarakhand, the sensitivity patterns show signs of convection.     

NWP perspective of the extreme precipitation and flood event in Kerala (India) during August 2018

In depth examination of the extreme precipitation over Kerala during 15–17th August 2018 – triggering major flood episode in the peninsular Indian state - have been made via the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) Unified Model. A rare alignment of an intense low pressure area (LPA) over head Bay of Bengal (BoB) and a couple of typhoons over South China Sea and West Pacific, driven by anomalous sea surface conditions along the south-east Asian coastal belts, kept the low level jet meander from central Arabian Sea to West North Pacific (WNP) and remain relentless throughout the episode. Positive velocity potentials (VP, at 850 hPa) were seen prevailing for the region and some of these VP fringes unevenly crossed over to Kerala - suggestive of an uneven wind convergence – and associated rainfall necessarily not dictated by orography alone. A single system of negative stream functions (SF) suggested the prevalence of a conveyor belt like flow – termed, the ‘Remotely Aligned Intense Tropical Circulations’ (RAITC) – helping bring ‘an additional supply of moisture’ from WNP to Kerala; the cyclones over the WNP provided large amounts of moisture to the upper air and while some of these cyclones were weakening, a part of this moisture got injected to the south-westward flow and was then propelled further by the BoB LPA. While the NCUM global forecasts could capture the general circulation pattern for the intense precipitation over Kerala in the medium range, the spatial distribution of the heavy spells couldn’t be captured well in day-7 forecast; the strength and movement of the BoB LPA as well as the alignment and intensity modulation of the multiple tropical circulations showed some deviations. The convection permitting regional version of the model, NCUM-R (4 km grid length), exhibited lesser frequency for the light rainfall events, while over-predicting the frequency for the extreme precipitations.     

北京一次冬季极端降水过程中相态转换预报的误差分析

应用多种常规和非常规观测气象资料以及再分析资料对2020年2月13日夜间至14日白天北京地区一次极端雨雪过程的成因进行了分析,并重点探讨了模式降水相态预报的误差及其原因.结果表明:(1)本次降水过程中,低涡系统深厚,强度异常强,移速慢,影响时间长,导致北京地区部分站点降水持续12?h左右.异常偏强的东南风急流向北京西部...     

2013年7月1日河北宁晋极端短时强降水成因研究

2013年7月1日午后至夜间,华北出现一次区域性暴雨和局地大暴雨过程。局地极端降水出现在河北省邢台市宁晋县四芝兰镇,过程雨量409 mm,其中当日17—19时连续2 h雨量超过100 mm。利用常规高空和地面观测资料、NCEP再分析资料和石家庄新一代天气雷达资料,探讨了宁晋极端短时强降水的形成原因。主要结论是:(1)低槽、冷锋、副热带高压及其外围低涡切变线为其主要影响系统,海南附近台风远距离影响加强了水汽自南向北的输送,半定常的地面辐合切变线对新生对流的触发和已有对流的维持及加强起到重要作用;(2)宁晋最强降水期间,其上空具有较强的垂直风切变,有利于高度组织化的对流系统发展;(3)对流系统的后向传播使回波主体移动缓慢、持续时间长,而回波强度大和雨强很强,则导致四芝兰镇极端强降水,此外,具有弱中气旋的超级单体相对较长时间的影响使其对四芝兰镇强降水具有重要贡献;(4)产生极端降水的对流系统属于高质心发展强烈的大陆强对流型,而非更易导致强降水的低质心系统。同时,针对众多学者研究北京"7.21"特大暴雨得到的一些结论进行了进一步探讨和验证。     

On the influence of physical parameterisations and domains configuration in the simulation of an extreme precipitation event

At daybreak and late morning of 18th of February 2008 Lisbon and Setúbal have been under the influence of a heavy rain event. This period was simulated by two operational WRF model set ups running for Portugal at the University of Aveiro in two different horizontal and vertical resolution and physical parameterisations. These two model configurations were tested for the described precipitation event in terms of microphysics and cumulus parameterisation and also in their domain configuration setup. Results suggest that the combination of cumulus and microphysics schemes is very important in the prediction of the amounts of precipitation. A small change in domain resolution has more impact in the spatial patterns of precipitation rather than in the amounts predicted.     

The use of a meso-gamma scale model for evaluation of pollution concentration over an industrial region in Israel (Hadera)

A model was developed for pollutant dispersion from a point source simulating the Hadera (Israel) power plant stack. The model is based on the NCAR mesoscale meteorological MM4 model that provides the wind fields and coefficients of turbulent diffusion. The model was implemented using an implicit numerical scheme with changing directions. A comparison between the model calculations and an analytical solution for the advection-diffusion equation shows good agreement. Relatively low numerical diffusion of the adopted advection scheme was noted. Results for the hilly region of central Israel are presented for a summer case.     

台风榴莲（2001）生成初期中尺度涡旋合并过程研究

由于热带海洋上观测资料的稀缺和热带气旋系统本身发生、发展的复杂性,热带气旋生成机制研究领域至今仍然存在很多未解之谜。已有的观测和模拟研究证明,中尺度涡旋合并过程对于热带气旋的生成可能有触发作用,但尚未见到南海季风槽内热带气旋生成过程中中尺度涡旋合并现象的实例模拟研究。利用新一代中尺度天气研究与预报模式WRF对南海热带气旋榴莲(2001)生成过程中的中尺度涡旋合并过程进行了高分辨率(4 km)数值模拟,并与观测资料进行对比,利用模式输出结果重点分析两个中尺度涡旋合并过程中的主要动力学和热力学特征,并在此基础上进一步分析了合并过程中系统中心附近涡度方程中各项涡度收支的演变情况,最后通过两个敏感性试验与控制试验结果的对比,初步探讨中尺度涡旋合并过程对于热带气旋榴莲生成的作用。结果表明,南海季风槽中的新生中层中尺度涡旋V2,是榴莲生成过程中的主导涡旋,预先存在的东部低层的中尺度涡旋V1对于台风榴莲的生成则起到了辅助作用,两个不同高度的涡旋合并叠加促使涡度的辐合、辐散项率先在低层引起涡度的快速增长,随后垂直输送项在对流层中层对涡度的增长起主要作用。两个涡旋的最终合并,使热带气旋系统正绝对涡度在垂直方向上从低层到中层得以贯通,进而触发榴莲的生成。     

Tracking the Moisture Sources of an Extreme Precipitation Event in Shandong, China in July 2007：A Computational Analysis

This paper utilizes a modified Water Accounting Model （WAM） to track the moisture sources of an extreme precipitation event in Shandong during 18-20 July 2007. It is found that different methods in dealing with the residual of the water budget always produce different results in moisture recycling calculations. In addition, results from the backward tracking without the residual are in complete agreement with those from the forward tracking with the residual, and vice versa, implying a mathematical consistency. We thus analyze and derive the conditions under which the two tracking approaches equate with each other. We applied the backward tracking to the Shandong extreme rainfall case and obtained quantitative estimates of moisture contributions of three selected regions away from the rainfall area. The results indicate that the spatial pattern rather than numerical value of the recycling moisture is more reliable in tracking the moisture sources. The moisture of this Shandong rainfall event comes mostly from the nearby upwind area in Southwest China, which is of the terrestrial origin; while the moisture originating from the neighboring West Pacific contributes little to this event.     

The Conservation of Helicity in Hurricane Andrew （1992） and the Formation of the Spiral Rainband

The characteristics of helicity in a hurricane are presented by calculating the MM5 model output in addition to theoretical analysis. It is found that helicity in a hurricane mainly depends on its horizontal component, whose magnitude is about 100 to 1000 times larger than its vertical component. It is also found that helicity is approximately conserved in the hurricane. Since the fluid has the intention to adjust the wind shear to satisfy the conservation of helicity, the horizontal vorticity is even larger than the vertical vorticity, and the three-dimensional vortices slant to the horizontal plane except in the inner eye. There are significant horizontal vortices and inhomogeneous helical flows in the hurricane. The formation of the spiral rainband is discussed by using the law of horizontal helical flows. It is closely related to the horizontal strong vortices and inhomogeneous helical flows.     

Simulation of extreme precipitation indices in the Yangtze River basin by using statistical downscaling method (SDSM)

In this study, the applicability of the statistical downscaling model (SDSM) in modeling five extreme precipitation indices including R10 (no. of days with precipitation ≥10?mm?day^?1), SDI (simple daily intensity), CDD (maximum number of consecutive dry days), R1d (maximum 1-day precipitation total) and R5d (maximum 5-day precipitation total) in the Yangtze River basin, China was investigated. The investigation mainly includes the calibration and validation of SDSM model on downscaling daily precipitation, the validation of modeling extreme precipitation indices using independent period of the NCEP reanalysis data, and the projection of future regional scenarios of extreme precipitation indices. The results showed that: (1) there existed good relationship between the observed and simulated extreme precipitation indices during validation period of 1991–2000, the amount and the change pattern of extreme precipitation indices could be reasonably simulated by SDSM. (2) Under both scenarios A2 and B2, during the projection period of 2010–2099, the changes of annual mean extreme precipitation indices in the Yangtze River basin would be not obvious in 2020s; while slightly increase in the 2050s; and significant increase in the 2080s as compared to the mean values of the base period. The summer might be the more distinct season with more projected increase of each extreme precipitation indices than in other seasons. And (3) there would be distinctive spatial distribution differences for the change of annual mean extreme precipitation indices in the river basin, but the most of Yangtze River basin would be dominated by the increasing trend.     

Simulation of tropical cyclone Vamei (2001) using the PSU/NCAR MM5 model

Summary In this study, a rare tropical cyclone Vamei was simulated using the non-hydrostatic version 3.6 of the Penn State University (PSU) – National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) mesoscale model MM5. This unusual cyclone was generated on 26 December 2001 in an area close to the equator in the southern part of the South China Sea. The model was integrated for 80 h from 0000 UTC 26 December 2001 to 1800 UTC 29 December 2001. To examine the model performance, several important simulated fields including sea-level pressure, surface wind speed and precipitation were compared to observations. The model simulated track of the cyclone was also compared to the best track provided by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JWTC). Overall, the model performed reasonably well, particularly in simulating the cyclone track and precipitation amount and spatial distribution. The analysis of the model output indicated the important role of the latent heat flux in the genesis and intensification of tropical cyclone Vamei.     

SEM-EDX Characterisation of Tropospheric Aerosols in the Negev Desert (Israel)

Individual aerosol particles collected in the Negev desert in Israel during a summer and winter campaign in 1996–1997 were analysed by scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. Hierarchical cluster analysis was performed to interpret the data on the basis of particle diameter and composition. Eleven particle classes (groups) provided clues on sources and/or particle formation. The summer samples were enriched in sulphates and mineral dusts; the winter samples contained more sea salts, aged sea salts, and industrial particles. The fine size fraction below 1 m diameter was enriched in secondary particles and showed evidence of atmospheric processing. The secondary sulphate particles were mainly attributed to long-range transport. A regional conversion from calcite to calcium sulphate occurred during summer. Industrial particles originating from local pollution appeared during winter.     

Rainfall uncertainty in the Mediterranean: definitions of the daily rainfall threshold (DRT) and the rainy season length (RSL)

One of the major dilemmas in rainfall-regime research is regarding the representativity of rainfall amounts. The annual total (TOTAL) represents the summation of the contributions of all rainfall events. However, this parameter is obtained mainly by contributions of some major events, whereas, many others may contribute minute quantities of a negligible impact. A selected daily rainfall threshold (DRT) is used to filter these small events and to retain only the effective ones (for a wide range of activities), and enable focusing on them in order to better detect any important temporal changes in the rainfall regime. Two different procedures are applied to the data in order to filter out slight and/or sporadic rains: (a) definition of a DRT for each station which filters out the slight rains all year around regardless of their timing, and (b) definitions of the rainy season beginning date (RSBD) and the rainy season ending date (RSED), which filter out sporadic rain events at the beginning or the end of the rainy season, regardless of their amount. The current study presents the appropriate DRT and effective rainy season length (RSL) in 41 Mediterranean stations, and analyzes their influence on some other parameters. The main conclusions are: (1) the filtering process reduced considerably the number of rain-spells (NRS) and therefore the average intensities increased; (2) the filtering process reduced the average time that elapsed between the beginning of two consecutive rain-spells, and (3) the RSL within the study area has a clear spatial distribution, longer in the northern parts and shorter in the southern parts.     

A mesoscale structure of meteorological fields in the tropopause layer and in the lower stratosphere over the southern tropics (Brazil)

Some results of studying thermodynamics of the tropical tropopause and lower stratosphere performed with the help of the stratospheric M-55 Geofizika research aircraft during the international TROCCINOX experiment in 2005 in Brazil are considered. New data on a mesoscale structure of the wind, temperature, and humidity fields over the continental tropics are derived.     

2001年冬季(12月～2002年2月)天气评述

利用山东省 2 0 0 1年 1 2月～ 2 0 0 2年 2月气温、降水资料和 5 0 0hPa月平均高度场和距平图 ,分析了今冬山东省降水偏少、气温偏高的天气气候特点及其影响     

2001年春季（3—5月）山东天气评述

利用500hPa月平均高度场及距平场等相关气象资料，分析山东今春风多雨少、气温偏高、干旱持续的天气特点及环流形势背景，介绍了春季影响山东的主要天气过程，并进行了天气影响评价。     

An evaluation of the CORDEX regional climate models in simulating future rainfall and extreme events over Mzingwane catchment,Zimbabwe

The study evaluated CORDEX RCMs’ ability to project future rainfall and extreme events in the Mzingwane catchment using an ensemble average of three RCMs (RCA4, REMO2009 and CRCM5). Model validation employed the statistical mean and Pearson correlation, while trends in projected rainfall and number of rainy days were computed using the Mann-Kendall trend test and the magnitudes of trends were determined by Sen’s slope estimator. Temporal and spatial distribution of future extreme dryness and wetness was established by using the Standard Precipitation Index (SPI). The results show that RCMs adequately represented annual and inter-annual rainfall variability and the ensemble average outperformed individual models. Trend results for the projected rainfall suggest a significant decreasing trend in future rainfall (2016–2100) for all stations at p < 0.05. In addition, a general decreasing trend in the number of rainy days is projected for future climate, although the significance and magnitude varied with station location. Model results suggest an increased occurrence of future extreme events, particularly towards the end of the century. The findings are important for developing proactive sustainable strategies for future climate change adaption and mitigation.     

拉格朗日方法诊断2007年7月中国东部系列极端降水的水汽输送路径及其可能蒸发源区

以2007年7月中、下旬中国中东部地区系列极端降水为研究对象,分别以NCEP/NCAR分析资料和中尺度气象模式(WRF)模拟输出驱动拉格朗日三维粒子输送模式(FLEXPART),通过对极端降水有贡献的大气粒子群(气块)的后向轨迹,诊断了极端降水事件的水汽输送路径及其可能蒸发源区,并定量估算了不同水汽源区对降水事件的相对贡献大小。结果表明,极端降水事件的水汽输送可以向上游追溯到阿拉伯海和西亚地区,青藏高原的地形和副热带高压对水汽输送路径具有重要影响。源于热带和副热带低纬度地区的气块在到达降水区域之前,经历了多次的降水和蒸发过程,其中,阿拉伯海、印度半岛、孟加拉湾、中南半岛的缅甸以及中国西南部的川、滇等地区都是水汽的蒸发源区,上述所有源区为极端降水事件贡献了约80%的水汽。但是,不同水汽源区的相对贡献计算结果发现,陆地蒸发对水汽贡献相对重要,尤其是中南半岛的缅甸、中国的川、滇等地区的地表前期蒸发对这次极端降水的贡献超过了40%,这表明上游地区前期的土壤湿度异常可能对极端降水的发生具有重要的指示意义。