The Importance of LAT in the Activation,Homeostasis, and Regulatory Function of T Cells

LAT (linker for activation of T cells) is a transmembrane adaptor protein that plays an essential role in TCR-mediated signaling and thymocyte development. Because LAT-deficient mice have an early block in thymocyte development, we utilized an inducible system to delete LAT in primary T cells to study LAT function in T cell activation, homeostasis, and survival. Deletion of LAT caused primary T cells to become unresponsive to stimulation from the TCR and impaired T cell homeostatic proliferation and long term survival. Furthermore, deletion of LAT led to reduced expression of Foxp3, CTLA-4, and CD25 in T_reg cells and impaired their function. Consequently, mice with LAT deleted developed a lymphoproliferative syndrome similar to that in LATY136F mice, although less severe. Our data implicate that LAT has positive and negative roles in the regulation of mature T cells.     

Homeostasis and Function of Regulatory T Cells in HIV/SIV Infection

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play a pivotal role in the maintenance of tolerance as well as in the control of immune activation, particularly during chronic infections. In the setting of HIV infection, the majority of studies have reported an increase in Treg frequency but a decrease in absolute number in all immune compartments of HIV-infected individuals. Several nonexclusive mechanisms have been postulated to explain this preferential Treg accumulation, including peripheral survival, increased proliferation, increased peripheral conversion, and tissue redistribution. The role played by Tregs during HIV infection is still poorly understood, as two opposing hypotheses have been proposed. A detrimental role of Tregs during HIV infection was suggested based on the evidence that Tregs suppress virus-specific immune responses. Conversely, Tregs could be beneficial by limiting immune activation, thus controlling the availability of HIV targets as well as preventing immune-based pathologies. Despite the technical difficulties, getting a better understanding of the mechanisms regulating Treg dynamics remains important, as it will help determine whether we can successfully manipulate Treg function or number to the advantage of the infected host. The aim of this review is thus to discuss the recent findings on Treg homeostasis and function in the setting of HIV infection.     

B细胞稳态的信号调节

在人类,65%的骨髓产生的B细胞是自身反应性的,它们大部分在骨髓中被克隆删除了。但有些B细胞通过免疫无力的方式逃脱了这种克隆删除到达外周,产生抗自身的抗体。研究表明,在鼠和人类中,B细胞存活时间过长是引发自身性免疫病的原因之一。B细胞的过度活化将导致自身反应性B细胞的产生和破坏自身免疫耐受,引起自身免疫性疾病或肿瘤;但B细胞的活化不足将使B细胞数量大大减少,抗原应答能力降低,从而使适应性免疫应答失衡。细胞因子和其他信号分子对B细胞稳态的调节是十分严密的,它们或调节B细胞的发育、成熟和分化,或调节B细胞向外周的迁移,或通过调节B细胞周期而使B细胞停留在特定时期,从而使B细胞避免凋亡,或通过调节抗凋亡蛋白或凋亡蛋白而决定B细胞的生存或死亡。本文就细胞因子、转录因子、蛋白激酶等信号分子对B细胞稳态的调节做一综述。     

Glutathione Restricts Serine Metabolism to Preserve Regulatory T Cell Function

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Dynamics of Membrane Trafficking Downstream of B and T Cell Receptor Engagement: Impact on Immune Synapses

The onset of an adaptive immune response requires the activation of T and B lymphocytes by antigen-presenting cells, through a specialized form of intercellular communication, known as the immunological synapse (IS). In B lymphocytes the IS promotes efficient recognition and acquisition of membrane-bound Ags, while in T cells, it modulates the T cell response upon exposure to peptide-major histocompatibility complexes. In this review, we highlight the similarities that determine B and T cell activation, focusing on immune receptor downstream signaling events that lead to synapse formation. We stress the notion that polarization of T and B lymphocytes characterized by global changes in cytoskeleton and membrane trafficking modulates synapse structure and function, thus determining lymphocyte effector functions and fate.     

Abrogation of CD40-CD154 Signaling Impedes the Homeostasis of Thymic Resident Regulatory T Cells by Altering the Levels of IL-2, but Does Not Affect Regulatory T Cell Development

A greater understanding of the function of the human immune system at the single-cell level in healthy individuals is critical for discerning aberrant cellular behavior that occurs in settings such as autoimmunity, immunosenescence, and cancer. To achieve this goal, a systems-level approach capable of capturing the response of the interdependent immune cell types to external stimuli is required. In this study, an extensive characterization of signaling responses in multiple immune cell subpopulations within PBMCs from a cohort of 60 healthy donors was performed using single-cell network profiling (SCNP). SCNP is a multiparametric flow cytometry-based approach that enables the simultaneous measurement of basal and evoked signaling in multiple cell subsets within heterogeneous populations. In addition to establishing the interindividual degree of variation within a broad panel of immune signaling responses, the possible association of any observed variation with demographic variables including age and race was investigated. Using half of the donors as a training set, multiple age- and race-associated variations in signaling responses in discrete cell subsets were identified, and several were subsequently confirmed in the remaining samples (test set). Such associations may provide insight into age-related immune alterations associated with high infection rates and diminished protection following vaccination and into the basis for ethnic differences in autoimmune disease incidence and treatment response. SCNP allowed for the generation of a functional map of healthy immune cell signaling responses that can provide clinically relevant information regarding both the mechanisms underlying immune pathological conditions and the selection and effect of therapeutics.     

调节性T细胞的分化及其影响因素

调节性T细胞是近年发现的一种具有免疫抑制活性的CD4+T细胞亚群,它们可以在胸腺中被选择分化,也可以在外周淋巴组织内由转化生长因子-β等细胞因子诱导分化。本文就调节性T细胞分化过程的关键信号通路及影响因素进行综述。调控调节性T细胞的分化过程能够影响其在体内的数目,可通过对其数量的干预,为自身免疫性疾病、免疫监视、排斥反应及变态反应等相关疾病提供可能的治疗靶点。     

Human Fc Receptor-like 3 Inhibits Regulatory T Cell Function and Binds Secretory IgA

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On-Lattice Simulation of T Cell Motility,Chemotaxis, and Trafficking in the Lymph Node Paracortex

Agent-based simulation is a powerful method for investigating the complex interplay of the processes occurring in a lymph node during an adaptive immune response. We have previously established an agent-based modeling framework for the interactions between T cells and dendritic cells within the paracortex of lymph nodes. This model simulates in three dimensions the “random-walk” T cell motility observed in vivo, so that cells interact in space and time as they process signals and commit to action such as proliferation. On-lattice treatment of cell motility allows large numbers of densely packed cells to be simulated, so that the low frequency of T cells capable of responding to a single antigen can be dealt with realistically. In this paper we build on this model by incorporating new numerical methods to address the crucial processes of T cell ingress and egress, and chemotaxis, within the lymph node. These methods enable simulation of the dramatic expansion and contraction of the T cell population in the lymph node paracortex during an immune response. They also provide a novel probabilistic method to simulate chemotaxis that will be generally useful in simulating other biological processes in which chemotaxis is an important feature.     

Human Regulatory T Cell Suppressive Function Is Independent of Apoptosis Induction in Activated Effector T Cells

Background

CD4⁺CD25⁺FOXP3⁺ Regulatory T cells (Treg) play a central role in the immune balance to prevent autoimmune disease. One outstanding question is how Tregs suppress effector immune responses in human. Experiments in mice demonstrated that Treg restrict effector T cell (Teff) responses by deprivation of the growth factor IL-2 through Treg consumption, resulting in apoptosis of Teff.

Principal Findings

In this study we investigated the relevance of Teff apoptosis induction to human Treg function. To this end, we studied naturally occurring Treg (nTreg) from peripheral blood of healthy donors, and, to investigate Treg function in inflammation in vivo, Treg from synovial fluid of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA) patients (SF-Treg). Both nTreg and SF-Treg suppress Teff proliferation and cytokine production efficiently as predicted. However, in contrast with murine Treg, neither nTreg nor SF-Treg induce apoptosis in Teff. Furthermore, exogenously supplied IL-2 and IL-7 reverse suppression, but do not influence apoptosis of Teff.

Significance

Our functional data here support that Treg are excellent clinical targets to counteract autoimmune diseases. For optimal functional outcome in human clinical trials, future work should focus on the ability of Treg to suppress proliferation and cytokine production of Teff, rather than induction of Teff apoptosis.     

肿瘤抑制因子CYLD对细胞功能的调控作用

肿瘤抑制因子（cylindromatosis,CYLD）是一种在体内广泛分布的去泛素酶,其包含去泛素化酶结构域和富含甘氨酸细胞骨架相关蛋白结构域,前者可通过去泛素化信号分子,调控细胞信号传导途径,后者主要通过对微管的调节,改变多聚化和乙酰化过程,进而调控其组装和排列。CYLD主要通过对信号传导和细胞骨架的调节,从而调控细胞增殖、细胞凋亡、细胞运动和细胞分化等细胞功能。该文对近年来肿瘤抑制因子CYLD对细胞功能调控的研究进行概述。     

CD4+CD25+调节性T细胞的外周维持

CD4 CD25 调节性T细胞作为一种抑制性T细胞功能亚群,在维持机体的免疫自稳和免疫耐受方面发挥了关键作用。该作用的发挥与其外周细胞库的维持密切相关。新近的研究显示CD4 CD25 调节性T细胞主要通过两种机制来维持其外周细胞库,一些功能分子参与其中。     

Regulatory T cells constrain the TCR repertoire of antigen‐stimulated conventional CD4 T cells

To analyze the potential role of Tregs in controlling the TCR repertoire breadth to a non‐self‐antigen, a TCRβ transgenic mouse model (EF4.1) expressing a limited, yet polyclonal naïve T‐cell repertoire was used. The response of EF4.1 mice to an I‐Ab‐associated epitope of the F‐MuLV envelope protein is dominated by clones expressing a Vα2 gene segment, thus allowing a comprehensive analysis of the TCRα repertoire in a relatively large cohort of mice. Control and Treg‐depleted EF4.1 mice were immunized, and the extent of the Vα2‐bearing, antigen‐specific TCR repertoire was characterized by high‐throughput sequencing and spectratyping analysis. In addition to increased clonal expansion and acquisition of effector functions, Treg depletion led to the expression of a more diverse TCR repertoire comprising several private clonotypes rarely observed in control mice or in the pre‐immune repertoire. Injection of anti‐CD86 antibodies in vivo led to a strong reduction in TCR diversity, suggesting that Tregs may influence TCR repertoire diversity by modulating costimulatory molecule availability. Collectively, these studies illustrate an additional mechanism whereby Tregs control the immune response to non‐self‐antigens.     

Regulation of Virus Replication and T Cell Homeostasis by N~6-Methyladenosine

RNA modifications are abundant in eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea. N~6-methyladenosine(m~6A), a type of RNA modification mainly found in messenger RNA(mRNA), has significant effects on the metabolism and function of m RNAs. This modification is governed by three types of proteins, namely methyltransferases as ‘‘writers' ', demethylases as ‘‘erasers' ',and specific m~6A-binding proteins(YTHDF1-3) as ‘‘readers' '. Further, it is important for the regulation of cell fate and has a critical function in many biological processes including virus replication, stem cell differentiation, and cancer development, and exerts its effect by controlling gene expression. Herein, we summarize recent advances in research on m~6A in virus replication and T cell regulation, which is a rapidly emerging field that will facilitate the development of antiviral therapies and the study of innate immunity.