Variation in the carotenoid composition of acerola and its processed products

Acerola is now commercially produced and processed in Brazil. Known for its very high vitamin C content, this fruit is also a good source of β‐carotene. The present study was carried out to verify variation in the carotenoid composition along the food chain. Neoxanthin, violaxanthin, lutein, β‐cryptoxanthin, α‐carotene and β‐carotene were found in the acerola fruit. β‐Carotene predominated with mean concentrations of 12.4 and 38.1 µg g^?1 in the ripe fruit, 8.8 and 30.1 µg g^?1 in the peeled ripe fruit and 5.4 and 12.0 µg g^?1 in the partially ripe fruit of an undefined variety taken from home gardens and the commercial cultivar Olivier, respectively. Aside from β‐carotene, β‐cryptoxanthin increased significantly in both garden and commercial fruits and violaxanthin in the latter fruits during ripening. Peeling reduced β‐carotene in both garden and commercial lots, violaxanthin decreased in the commercial fruits, and the other carotenoids remained virtually unchanged. Four brands of frozen pulp and three brands of processed juice had variable and markedly lower carotenoid levels than those of the fresh fruit, indicating that the processing should be improved. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Provitamin‐A and xanthophyll carotenoids in vegetables and food grains of nutritional and medicinal importance

This study reports carotenoid composition of vegetables (n = 56), cereals (n = 12), pulses and legumes (n = 12), analysed by HPLC. It was hypothesised that food grains, like vegetables may be good sources of carotenoids. Amongst vegetables, higher level (mg/100 g dry weight) of lutein (210–419) was detected in green/red/capsicum and yellow zucchini, whilst zeaxanthin was dominant in kenaf (4.59). β‐Carotene (mg/100 g dry weight) was higher in green capsicum and kenaf (48,159) whilst carrot, ivy gourd and green capsicum contain α‐carotene (22–110). Amongst food grains, chickpea, split red gram and flaxseed contain higher levels (μg/100 g dry weight) of lutein (185–200) whilst zeaxanthin level was highest in puffed chickpea (1.8). Red unpolished parboiled rice was richest (μg/100 g dry weight) in β‐carotene (67.6) whilst whole black gram contained higher levels of α‐carotene (52.7). Thus, results indicate that chickpea and red unpolished parboiled rice are good sources of carotenoids. These carotenoid‐rich vegetables and grains may be exploited to meet the lutein and β‐carotene requirement.     

Carotenoid Retention In Canned Pickled Jalapeño Peppers and Carrots As Affected by Sodium Chloride, Acetic Acid, and Pasteurization

ABSTRACT The combined effect of salt, acetic acid, and pasteurization temperature on the retention of carotenoids in canned pickled carrots and green jalapeño peppers was studied by a central composite design. The results were analyzed by response surface methodology. The carotenoid standards were obtained by open column chromatography and the quantitation was done by HPLC. Only the main carotenoids were quantified: α‐ and β‐carotene in carrots and α‐, β‐carotene, lutein, and violaxanthin in peppers. After analyzing the experimental results and the restrictions of the Mexican Regulations, 2% NaCl and 2% acetic acid concentrations were recommended. The optimal pasteurization conditions were 70 °C/12.45 min for carrots and 83 °C/5.2 min for peppers.     

Carotenoid composition of kale as influenced by maturity,season and minimal processing

The principal carotenoids of kale were identified by chemical reactions, high‐performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry and high‐performance liquid chromatography/photodiode array detection and were quantified by the last technique. In kale taken from conventional farms, the β‐carotene and lutein contents were significantly higher in the mature leaves, violaxanthin was at an unusually high level in the young leaves, and neoxanthin had practically the same concentration at both stages of maturity. In samples taken from an organic farm, the carotenoid contents were essentially the same in the young and the mature leaves. Except for β‐carotene, which did not differ with season, the carotenoid concentrations of marketed minimally processed kale were found to be significantly higher in the summer than in the winter, reflecting seasonal rather than processing effects. In minimally processed kale monitored during 5 days of storage at 7–9 °C, β‐carotene, lutein, violaxanthin and neoxanthin were reduced by 14, 27, 20 and 31% respectively. Thus minimal processing, seasonal and maturity factors were found to have an influence on the carotenoid content of kale. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Enhanced bioaccessibility of β‐carotene from yellow‐orange vegetables and green leafy vegetables by domestic heat processing

Effect of heat treatment involved in domestic cooking on the bioaccessibility of β‐carotene from yellow‐orange as well as green leafy vegetables was evaluated. Heat treatment of these vegetables by pressure‐cooking, stir‐frying and open‐pan boiling had a beneficial influence on the bioaccessibility of β‐carotene. The extent of increase in the per cent bioaccessibility of β‐carotene as a result of pressure‐cooking was 21–84%. Stir‐frying in presence of a small quantity of oil brought about an enormous increase in the bioaccessibility of β‐carotene from these vegetables, the extent of increase being 67–191%. Open‐pan boiling of vegetables increased the bioaccessibility of β‐carotene in the range 23–36%. Thus, among the three domestic heat processing methods, stir‐frying results in maximum bioaccessibility of this provitamin. The use of suitably heat‐processed vegetable sources of β‐carotene could form a dietary strategy to derive this micronutrient maximally by the population dependent on plant foods.     

Analyses of tomato peel and seed byproducts and their use as a source of carotenoids

Commercial tomato canning yields two different byproducts. One is the material that results from peeling tomatoes, while the other results from removing the seeds. The peel byproduct contained 100.8 g protein, 256.4 g ash and 299.4 g acid detergent fiber kg^?1. Ash content was high because the peel byproduct contained 83.8 g kg^?1 sodium as a result of using a sodium hydroxide solution to peel the tomatoes. The seed byproduct contained 202.3 g protein, 51.8 g ash, and 537.9 g acid detergent fiber kg^?1. An amino acid analysis of seeds indicated that approximately 60% of the protein results from amino acids. Both byproducts were analyzed for carotenoid content. The lycopene content of peel byproduct was 734 µg g^?1 of dry material. Significant amounts of lutein, β‐carotene, and cis‐β‐carotene were also present. Seed byproduct contained 130 µg lycopene kg^?1 of dry matter. The content of other carotenoids was approximately half of that present in the peels. Peel and seed byproducts were included at 75 g kg^?1 in hen diets to determine the transfer of carotenoids to the yolk. When fed at this concentration, the lycopene content of dry egg yolk was approximately 0.9 µg g^?1. Approximately 0.1% of the lycopene in peel byproduct and approximately 0.7% of the lycopene in the seed byproduct was transferred from the feed to the yolk. Lycopene appears more similar to carotene than to oxycarotenoids in its transfer to the yolk. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effects of Heat Treatment on the Carotenoid and Tocopherol Composition of Tomato

Abstract: The objective of this study was to determine the influence of thermal processing on the assessment of tocopherols and carotenoids, as well as their isomer formation in tomatoes. The sliced tomatoes were heated in an oven at 100, 130, and 160 °C for 5, 10, and 20 min, then freeze‐dried. Freeze‐dried samples were finely ground and the analysis was performed on lyophilized samples. The average concentrations of total lycopene, lutein, β‐carotene, α‐tocopherol, and γ‐tocopherol in fresh tomatoes (in 100 g dry weight) were 21.2, 1.1, 2.7, 8.0, and 2.5 mg, respectively. Oven baking of tomato at 160 °C for 20 min led to a significant increase in the apparent measurement of lycopene, β‐carotene, and α‐tocopherol content by 75%, 81%, and 32%, respectively. Heating induced isomerization of (all‐E) to various (Z) isomers of lycopene, and we found that the total (Z)‐lycopene proportion in the tomatoes increased with longer heating time. (All‐E)‐lycopene constituted 75.4% in fresh tomatoes and decreased to 52.5% in oven‐baked tomatoes (160 °C, 20 min), while (5Z)‐lycopene increased from 9.4% to 17.9% of total lycopene. However, β‐carotene release and isomerization was less influenced by the heat treatment than that of lycopene. These results suggested that thermal processes might break down cell walls and enhance the release of carotenoids and tocopherols from the matrix, as well as increase isomerization of lycopene and β‐carotene.     

High pressure homogenization increases the in vitro bioaccessibility of α- and β-carotene in carrot emulsions but not of lycopene in tomato emulsions

Abstract: The correlation between food microstructure and in vitro bioaccessibility of carotenes was evaluated for tomato and carrot emulsions (5% olive oil) subjected to high pressure homogenization (HPH) at varying degrees of intensity. The aim was to investigate whether additional mechanical disruption of the food matrix could be utilized to further increase the carotene bioaccessibility of an already pre‐processed material. The carotene bioaccessibility of the samples was measured after simulated in vitro digestion, carotene release to the oil phase was estimated by Confocal Raman spectroscopy and, to measure active uptake of carotenes, Caco‐2 cells were incubated with the digesta of selected samples. HPH did not notably affect the retention of carotenes or ascorbic acid but significantly increased both the release and micellar incorporation of α‐ and β‐carotene in carrot emulsions 1.5‐ to 1.6‐fold. On the other hand, in vitro bioaccessibility of lycopene from tomato was not increased by HPH under any of the conditions investigated. Instead, the results suggested that lycopene bioaccessibility was limited by a combination of the low solubility of lycopene in dietary lipids and entrapment in the cellular network. Carotene uptake by Caco‐2 cells appeared to be mainly dependent upon the carotene concentration of the digesta, but cis‐trans isomerization had a significant impact on the micellarization efficiency of carotenes. We therefore conclude that HPH is an interesting option for increasing the bioaccessibility of carotenes from fruits and vegetables while maintaining a high nutrient content, but that the results will depend on both food source and type of carotene. Practical Application: A better understanding of the correlation between the processing of fruits and vegetables, microstructure and nutrient bioaccessibility can be directly applied in the production of food products with an increased nutritional value.     

Carotenoids in yellow‐ and red‐fleshed papaya (Carica papaya L)

Vitamin A deficiency is a disorder of public health importance in Sri Lanka. A recent national survey revealed that 36% of preschool children in Sri Lanka have vitamin A deficiency (serum retinol <0.2 µg ml^?1). In view of its well‐established association with child morbidity and mortality, this is a reason for concern. One of the main fruits which has been recommended for prevention of vitamin A deficiency in Sri Lanka is papaya (Carica papaya L). In this study the carotenoid profiles of yellow‐ and red‐fleshed papaya were analysed by medium‐pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC) and UV‐vis spectrophotometry. A section of yellow‐fleshed papaya showed small carotenoid globules dispersed all over the cell, whereas in red‐fleshed papaya the carotenoids were accumulated in one large globule. The major carotenoids of yellow‐fleshed papaya were the provitamin A carotenoids β‐carotene (1.4 ± 0.4 µg g^?1 dry weight (DW)) and β‐cryptoxanthin (15.4 ± 3.3 µg g^?1 DW) and the non‐provitamin A carotenoid ζ‐carotene (15.1 ± 3.4 µg g^?1 DW), corresponding theoretically to 1516 ± 342 µg kg^?1 DW mean retinol equivalent (RE). Red‐fleshed papaya contained the provitamin A carotenoids β‐carotene (7.0 ± 0.7 µg g^?1 DW), β‐cryptoxanthin (16.9 ± 2.9 µg g^?1 DW) and β‐carotene‐5,6‐epoxide (2.9 ± 0.6 µg g^?1 DW), and the non‐provitamin A carotenoids lycopene (11.5 ± 1.8 µg g^?1 DW) and ζ‐carotene (9.9 ± 1.1 µg g^?1 DW), corresponding theoretically to 2815 ± 305 µg kg^?1 DW mean RE. Thus the carotenoid profile and organisation of carotenoids in the cell differ in the two varieties of papaya. This study demonstrates that carotenoids can be successfully separated, identified and quantified using the novel technique of MPLC. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Bioactive compounds of cold pressed spice paprika seeds oils

The aim of present study was to report the industrial production of cold pressed spice paprika seed oil and to evaluate the effect of raw material variety and growing season factors on the fatty acid profile, tocopherol, and carotenoid contents. The spice paprika seed oils were cleanly transparent with shiny deep red color, due to the presence of considerable amount of carotenoids (629.35–848.39 µg/g). The main carotenoids were the capsantin, lutein, capsorubin, β‐carotene as free xanthophylls, mono‐ or di‐esters. The fatty acid profile demonstrated the predominant concentration (70.79–74.31%) of cis‐linoleic acid. Among the saturated fatty acid the most prevalent was the palmitic acid (11.08–12.20%), followed by the stearic acid (3.10–3.75%). The γ‐tocopherol (57.85–83.57 mg/100 g) was the major analogue in tocopherol fraction of paprika seeds oils, while the α‐tocopherol level was relatively low (4.50–16.41 mg/100 g). The oils had pleasant smell and flavor in which appeared the mild aroma of dried spice paprika.

Practical applications

The article deals with edible oil that has interesting composition from the technological and nutritional points of view. The high content of phytonutrients in the oils produced and examined in this work makes them preferred in modern nutrition programs with salads, as cooking oils, dressing and as good materials in many food industries. Owe to high antioxidant levels in paprika seed oils they can be used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries to increase bio‐efficiency of many products. The supposed consumption (～10 g as salad oil) can cover the 70–74% of the suggested minimum daily intake of linoleic acid and 3.7–13.6% of the vitamin E (α‐tocopherol) NRV, and 10.3–14.2% of the vitamin A (retinol equivalent) NRV. The available medicine studies have suggested the valuable properties of the γ‐tocopherol. It is worth to mention the lutein and zeaxantin levels (956.1–1332.9 µg/10 g and 106.3–207.4 µg/10 g respectively), due to their protective effect against age related macular degeneration.     

Carotenoids in pungent and non‐pungent peppers at various developmental stages grown in the field and glasshouse

Carotenoids in edible portions of plants can provide health benefits to humans. How growing conditions affect levels of carotenoids in pepper fruits as they mature is not well known. Five cvs of bell pepper (Bell Captain, Melody, North Star, Ranger, Red Beauty) and five cvs of pungent‐type peppers (Anaheim, Ancho, Cayenne, Pimento, Red Cherry) were grown in a glasshouse and in the field. Fruits were harvested at the green, turning (50% green) and mature red stages and analysed for levels of the carotenoids β‐cryptoxanthin, α‐carotene, β‐carotene, capsanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin and totals of these carotenoids. Levels of provitamin A: retinol equivalents (RE) were derived from levels of β‐cryptoxanthin, α‐carotene and β‐carotene. Levels of most carotenoids and RE were significantly higher in glasshouse‐grown plants, and most were higher in fruits at the red stage. Fruits of Ancho type had the most β‐cryptoxanthin, α‐carotene, β‐carotene, total carotenoids and RE, while fruits of Red Cherry type had the most capsanthin and zeaxanthin, and fruits of Bell Captain had the most lutein. Interactions of the main effects variables, ie location of production (field vs glasshouse), stage of development and cultivar, indicated differences in patterns of carotenoid levels and RE. The data indicated that growing conditions influenced carotenoid levels. The more consistent and protected conditions in the glasshouse may have caused carotenoid levels to be increased, especially at the red stage. Published in 2002 for SCI by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd     

CAROTENOID RETENTION AND SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF SELECTED VEGETABLES PREPARED BY INDUCTION STIR‐FRYING*

ABSTRACT

The effects of induction stir‐frying on carotenoid retention and sensory characteristics of selected vegetables (carrot, green spring onion, red pepper, snow pea, white spring onion and yellow pepper) were investigated. Cooking times ranged from 4 to 6 min, and cooking yields from 70.9 to 92.0%. The stir‐fried vegetables retained (w/w) more than 85% (mean) of each of their carotenoids (β‐carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, α‐carotene, β‐cryptoxanthin and lycopene). Over three‐quarters of the 78 consumer panelists reported liking extremely/liking very much or liking moderately/liking slightly the appearance, color, flavor, texture and overall acceptability of carrot, green spring onion, red pepper, snow pea and yellow pepper; whereas, half to three‐quarters reported similarly for white spring onion. Few differences in attribute responses were observed by gender. Induction stir‐fried vegetables had excellent carotenoid retention, and the consumer panelists indicated liking them slightly to extremely.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

This study indicates that vegetables that are cooked by induction stir‐frying retained (w/w) over 85% of their carotenoid content and had sensory characteristics that the consumer panelists liked. Perhaps individuals, specifically college students, might be inclined to consume more cooked vegetables if they liked the appearance, color, flavor, texture and overall acceptability of the vegetables. Consuming vegetables containing higher amounts of the carotenoids may also be beneficial.

     

In vitro bioaccessibility of β‐carotene in dried carrots pretreated by different methods

The effects of selected pretreatment methods, i.e. soaking in citric acid, blanching in water and blanching in citric acid, as well as hot‐air drying (at 70, 80 and 90 °C), on the retention and relative in vitro bioaccessibility of β‐carotene in dried carrots were investigated. The results indicated that the selected pretreatments and drying could enhance the relative bioaccessibility of β‐carotene in dried carrots. The relative bioaccessibility of β‐carotene in dried carrots increased to 47–73%, while the values in the fresh (13%) and dried untreated (31–47%) carrots were lower. Although significant losses of β‐carotene occurred during both the pretreatment and drying processes, bioaccessible β‐carotene contents of dried pretreated carrots were in a similar order to those of the fresh carrots, indicating the ability and hence the benefit of appropriate pretreatment and drying processes in maintaining the nutritive quality of a food product.     

Microstructure and bioaccessibility of different carotenoid species as affected by high pressure homogenisation: A case study on differently coloured tomatoes

The effect of high pressure homogenisation (HPH) on structure (Bostwick consistency, particle size distribution and microstructure) and carotenoid in vitro bioaccessibility of different tomato pulps was investigated. HPH decreased tomato particle size due to matrix disruption and increased product consistency, probably due to the formation of a fibre network. Homogenisation also resulted in a decrease of in vitro bioaccessibility of lycopene, ζ-carotene, and lutein. Such decrease was attributed to the structuring effect of HPH. An inverse relation between tomato consistency and carotenoid in vitro bioaccessibility was found. This dependency was affected by carotenoid species and its localisation within the matrix. It could be observed that one matrix (e.g. (homogenised) red tomato pulp) can contain carotenoids with a very low bioaccessibility (lycopene) as well as carotenoids with a very high bioaccessibility (lutein), indicating that carotenoid bioaccessibility is not solely dependent on the matrix.     

Metabolomic Profiling of Carotenoid Constituents in Physalis peruviana During Different Growth Stages by LC‐MS/MS Technology

With the current ongoing changes in global food demands, natural carotenoids are preferred by consumers and are gaining attention among food scientists and producers alike. Metabolomic profiling of carotenoid constituents in Physalis peruviana during distinct on‐tree growth stages was performed with liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS) technology. The results show that the β rings of β‐carotene are hydroxylated with great efficiency, and there is a continual synthesis of zeaxanthin at half‐ripe and full‐ripe stages, which is confirmed by relating the zeaxanthin content to that of its precursor (β‐carotene). Lutein was, in terms of mass intensity, the most abundant carotenoid constituent (64.61 µg/g at the half‐ripe stage) observed in this study. In addition, γ‐carotene, which is rare in dietary fruits and vegetables, was detected in the mature and breaker stages, albeit at a relatively low level. The results suggest that when we consider the variation in carotenoid content during different growth stages, Physalis peruviana can be considered a good source of natural carotenoids.     

Differences in the carotenoid content of ketchups and gazpachos through HPLC/ESI(Li(+) )-MS/MS correlated with their antioxidant capacity

BACKGROUND: Carotenoids are important antioxidant compounds in the human diet. Owing to their constrained polyene structure, carotenoids can exist in cis and trans isomeric forms that can be difficult to differentiate in natural samples. In ketchups and gazpachos, all‐trans isomeric forms are predominant. However, during thermal processing, cis isomers are formed. Therefore the determination of carotenoid isomers is required for the assessment of the nutritional value of foods. RESULTS: The main carotenoid found in ketchups was trans‐lycopene, whereas in gazpachos a higher contribution to the total carotenoid content was made by other carotenoids such as 5‐, 9‐ and 13‐cis‐lycopene, lutein, β‐carotene and α‐carotene. Ketchups exhibited the highest lipophilic antioxidant content owing to their higher content of trans‐lycopene, the main carotenoid in tomatoes. CONCLUSION: Direct analysis of carotenoids by electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI‐MS) often produces poor results requiring offline time‐ and sample‐consuming derivatisation techniques. Therefore in this work a simple ESI‐MS approach is described for the direct analysis of carotenoids in ketchups and gazpachos using the post‐column addition of lithium chloride to promote the cationisation of carotenoids. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this paper presents for the first time the identification of 5‐, 9‐ and 13‐cis‐lycopene in ketchups and gazpachos. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Processing of tomato: impact on in vitro bioaccessibility of lycopene and textural properties

BACKGROUND: Human studies have demonstrated that processing of tomato can greatly increase lycopene bioavailability. However, the difference between processing methods is not widely investigated. In the current study different thermal treatments of tomato were evaluated with regard to their impact on in vitro bioaccessibility and retention of lycopene and β‐carotene as well as textural properties. Thermal treatments used were low (60 °C) and high (90 °C) temperature blanching followed by boiling. RESULTS: Lycopene was relatively stable during thermal treatment, whereas β‐carotene was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced by all heat treatments except for low temperature blanching. In vitro bioaccessibility of lycopene was significantly increased from 5.1 ± 0.2 to 9.2 ± 1.8 and 9.7 ± 0.6 mg kg^?1 for low and high temperature blanching, respectively. An additional boiling step after blanching did not further improve lycopene bioaccessibility for any treatment, but significantly reduced the consistency of low temperature treated samples. CONCLUSION: Choice and order of processing treatments can have a large impact on both lycopene bioavailability and texture of tomato products. Further investigations are needed, but this study provides one of the first steps towards tomato products tailored to optimise nutritional benefits. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Carotenoid composition and vitamin A value of some native Brazilian green leafy vegetables

The composition of carotenoids in five native Brazilian leafy vegetables was determined. The ranges of total carotenoid contents of Amaranthus viridis, Lepidium pseudodidymum, Xanthosoma spp., Sonchus oleraceus , and Portulaca oleracea were 347–468, 237–280, 225–361, 149–334 and 71–109 μg g⁻¹, with lutein and β-carotene predominating. The mean β-carotene contents (μg⁻¹) and vitamin A values (retinol equivalents RE_g⁻¹) were 110 and 18.4, 84.6 and 14.1, 67.3 and 11.2, 62.9 and 10.5, 29.8 and 4.99, respectively. The leaves contained 54–61% of lutein plus violaxanthin, 24–34% of β-carotene, 10–14% of neoxanthin and traces of zeaxanthin and α-crypto-xanthin. The native leafy vegetables were richer sources of provitamin A than the cultivated leafy vegetables analysed previously, justifying their commercial production.     

Effect of a multi‐step preparation of amaranth and palm nut sauces on their carotenoid content and retinol activity equivalent values

The preparation of a traditional sauce based on amaranth leaves cooked palm nuts or red palm oil (RPO) in Benin was described. The recipes included an optional step of leaf blanching at 100 °C, heating the RPO or boiling the palm nuts and finally cooking all the ingredients together. The influence of this multi‐step preparation on the carotenoid content of the final dish was measured. During blanching of amaranth leaves, violaxanthin was the only carotenoid to be significantly affected by the thermal treatment. Retinol activity equivalent (RAE) remained high after blanching even when alkaline traditional potash was added. Heating the RPO was the most critical step because it considerably and very rapidly (in <3 min) decreased α‐carotene, β‐carotene and RAE values (more than 70%). Sauces calling for palm nuts, RPO and amaranth leaves were equally advantageous in terms of final RAE value. These ingredients and sauces can thus be used in programmes to reduce vitamin A deficiency.