The study of chip characteristics and tool wear in milling of SKD61 mold steel

In recent years, many machining applications have used dry cutting for high-speed cutting, for which, tool life prediction and research are important issues. In this study, a tungsten carbide tool cutting steel SKD61 was used, and the actual value of the chip shooting and the wear of the flank were determined using an industrial camera. The chip type and chip color are also discussed. After color calibration and chromaticity conversion, the model was trained through the neural network and the results were predicted. The tool wear curve and the theoretical curve were found to be closely related, and the chip color changed regularly. In the CIE XY chromaticity coordinate value, when the initial cutting was observed, the chip chromaticity coordinate point range was small, but as the wear amount increased, the chip chromaticity coordinate point range expanded gradually. The tool wear prediction established in this study was determined from the experimental results. The maximum errors of the test and verification were 0.031 mm and 0.022 mm. After calculation, the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) was within 3 % and the accuracy level is MAPE is less than 10 %, so it has a high accurate prediction ability. Established tool wear predictions are also provided.

     

An analytical approach to cutting force prediction in milling of carbon fiber reinforced polymer laminates

ABSTRACT

A prediction model of cutting force for milling multidirectional laminate of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites was developed in this article by using an analytical approach. In the predictive model, an equivalent uniform chip thickness was used in the case of orthogonal plane cutting, and the average specific cutting energy was taken as an empirical function of equivalent chip thickness and fiber orientation angle. The parameters in the model were determined by the experimental data. Then, the analytical model of cutting force prediction was validated by the experimental data of multidirectional CFRP laminates, which shows the good reliability of the model established. Furthermore, the cutting force component of flank contact force was correlated with the surface roughness of workpiece and the flank wear of tool in milling UD-CFRP composites. It was found that surface quality as well as flank wear has a co-incident varying trend with the flank contact force, as confirmed by the observations of the machined surfaces and tool wear at different fiber orientations. So, it can be known that low flank contact force be required to reduce surface damage and flank wear.     

Decoupled chip thickness calculation model for cutting force prediction in five-axis ball-end milling

Cutting force prediction plays very critical roles for machining parameters selection in milling process. Chip thickness calculation supplies the basis for cutting force prediction. However, the chip thickness calculation in five-axis ball-end milling is difficult due to complex geometrical engagements between parts and cutters. In this paper, we present a method to calculate the chip thickness in five-axis ball-end milling. The contributions of lead and tilt angles in five-axis ball-end milling on the chip thickness are studied separately in detail. We prove that the actual chip thickness can be decoupled as the sum of the ones derived from the two individual cutting conditions, i.e., lead and tilt angles. In this model, the calculation of engagement boundaries of tool–workpiece engagement is easy; thus, time consumption is low. In order to verify the proposed chip thickness model, the chip volume predicted based on the proposed chip thickness calculation model is compared with the theoretical results. The comparison results show that the desired accuracy is obtained with the proposed chip thickness calculation model. The validation cutting tests, which are in a constant material removal rate and with only ball part engaged in cutting, are carried out. The optimized lead and tilt angles are analyzed with regard to cutting forces. The geometrical as well as the kinematics meaning of the proposed method is obvious comparing with the existing models.     

2D FEM estimate of tool wear in turning operation

Finite element method (FEM) is a powerful tool to predict cutting process variables, which are difficult to obtain with experimental methods. In this paper, modelling techniques on continuous chip formation by using the commercial FEM code ABAQUS are discussed. A combination of three chip formation analysis steps including initial chip formation, chip growth and steady-state chip formation, is used to simulate the continuous chip formation process. Steady chip shape, cutting force, and heat flux at tool/chip and tool/work interface are obtained. Further, after introducing a heat transfer analysis, temperature distribution in the cutting insert at steady state is obtained. In this way, cutting process variables e.g. contact pressure (normal stress) at tool/chip and tool/work interface, relative sliding velocity and cutting temperature distribution at steady state are predicted. Many researches show that tool wear rate is dependent on these cutting process variables and their relationship is described by some wear rate models. Through implementing a Python-based tool wear estimate program, which launches chip formation analysis, reads predicted cutting process variables, calculates tool wear based on wear rate model and then updates tool geometry, tool wear progress in turning operation is estimated. In addition, the predicted crater wear and flank wear are verified with experimental results.     

Intelligent monitoring and prediction of tool wear in CNC turning by utilizing wavelet transform

In order to realize an intelligent CNC machine, this research proposed the in-process tool wear monitoring system regardless of the chip formation in CNC turning by utilizing the wavelet transform. The in-process prediction model of tool wear is developed during the CNC turning process. The relations of the cutting speed, the feed rate, the depth of cut, the decomposed cutting forces, and the tool wear are investigated. The Daubechies wavelet transform is used to differentiate the tool wear signals from the noise and broken chip signals. The decomposed cutting force ratio is utilized to eliminate the effects of cutting conditions by taking ratio of the average variances of the decomposed feed force to that of decomposed main force on the fifth level of wavelet transform. The tool wear prediction model consists of the decomposed cutting force ratio, the cutting speed, the depth of cut, and the feed rate, which is developed based on the exponential function. The new cutting tests are performed to ensure the reliability of the tool wear prediction model. The experimental results showed that as the cutting speed, the feed rate, and the depth of cut increase, the main cutting force also increases which affects in the escalating amount of tool wear. It has been proved that the proposed system can be used to separate the chip formation signals and predict the tool wear by utilizing wavelet transform even though the cutting conditions are changed.     

钛合金铣削过程刀具前刀面磨损解析建模

钛合金Ti6Al4V作为典型的航空航天难加工材料,在其铣削过程中硬质合金刀具的磨损会降低加工过程稳定性,进而影响加工效率和已加工表面表面质量。刀具前刀面磨损会导致刀具刃口强度降低,并影响切屑的流向和折断情况。针对前刀面磨损机理进行分析并构建了月牙洼磨损深度预测模型。首先运用解析方法构建了前刀面应力场模型,得到切屑在前刀面滑动过程中的刀具前刀面应力分布情况及磨损位置。基于刀-屑接触关系的基础上建立了前刀面温度场模型。然后,基于所得刀具前刀面应力与温度分布,构建综合考虑磨粒磨损、粘结磨损与扩散磨损的铣刀月牙洼磨损深度预测模型,获得月牙洼磨损预测曲线;结合铣刀月牙洼磨损带沿切削刃方向分布的特点,建立了随时间变化的铣刀前刀面磨损体积预测模型。最后通过试验验证了切削宽度对前刀面磨损的影响规律,预测结果与试验测量值具有较好的吻合性。结果表明随着切削宽度的增加,月牙洼磨损深度及前刀面磨损体积都随之增加。研究结果为钛合金铣削用刀具的设计和切削参数的合理选择提供了理论基础。     

高速铣削淬硬钢时切削载荷平稳化研究

和传统的铣削加工相比,高速铣削淬硬钢更需要稳定的切削载荷,以尽可能减少刀具碎裂和过度磨损。本研究借助三向压电石英测力仪,使用TiAlN涂层球形端铣刀,在13500 r/min的转速下,对淬火45#钢(47HRC~48HRC)进行了高速铣削试验,建立了高速铣削下的多项式切削力试验模型,模拟了以恒定切削力为目标、优化进给率的加工实例。结果显示,稳定的切削载荷能有效地提高加工效率,避免刀具剧烈磨损。     

低温液氮冷却下高速切削淬硬钢的切屑形成及刀具磨损

针对低温液氮冷却下淬硬钢高速车削过程中切屑形成及刀具磨损机理尚缺乏相关研究的问题,开展了液氮冷却下的淬硬钢高速切削研究,并与干切进行了对比.分析了切削力、切削温度、切屑特征以及刀具磨损特征,讨论了冷却润滑、切屑形成及刀具磨损机理.结果表明:与干切相比,各组实验中低温液氮冷却切削的切削温度降低了6.9％～9.9％,因材料...     

基于“差分”磨损模型的车削刀具磨损仿真预测研究

研究表明,切削过程中的刀具磨损与刀面温度、刀/屑和刀/工界面的接触压力及相对滑动速度等切削过程变量有关,借助于有限元分析法可对这些切削过程变量进行仿真预测。基于“差分”磨损模型,提出了一种对切削过程中刀具轮廓磨损变化的预测方法,以硬质合金刀具切削AISI1045材料为例,介绍了该方法的原理和实施步骤,并对刀具前后刀面磨损的预测结果进行了试验验证,分析了预测结果与试验结果存在误差的原因。     

MODELING THE PHYSICS OF METAL CUTTING IN HIGH-SPEED MACHINING

ABSTRACT

Physical modeling of metal cutting was carried out to provide an understanding and prediction of machining process details. The models are based on finite element analysis (FEA), using a Lagrangian formulation with explicit dynamics. Requirements for material constitutive models are discussed in the context of high-speed machining. Model results address metal cutting characteristics such as segmented chip formation, dynamic cutting forces, unconstrained plastic flow of material during chip formation, and thermomechanical environments of the work-piece and the cutting tool. Examples are presented for aerospace aluminum and titanium alloys. The results are suited for analysis of key process issues of cutting tool performance, including tool geometry, tool sharpness, workpiece material buildup, and tool wear.     

微织构(W,Mo)C基刀具和YG8刀具对钛合金干切削性能的影响

刀具切削钛合金时存在切削温度高、单位面积上切削力大等问题,微织构刀具可以有效减小摩擦力,减小切削力。通过正交实验法设计微织构参数,研究微织构参数对Al 2O 3/La 2O 3/(W,Mo)C无黏结相硬质合金刀具以及YG8刀具切削钛合金实验的切削性能影响。实验结果表明,合适参数的沟槽型微织构能有效降低Al 2O 3/La 2O 3/(W,Mo)C无黏结相硬质合金刀具和YG8刀具切削TC4钛合金的切削力,相同沟槽参数下,无黏结相硬质合金刀具的切削力明显低于YG8刀具的切削力;合适参数的沟槽型微织构能有效降低刀具刀屑界面的摩擦系数,相同沟槽参数下,无黏结相硬质合金刀具的摩擦系数大都低于YG8刀具的摩擦系数;沟槽深度10μm、沟槽间距100μm以及沟槽宽度30μm的沟槽参数下,切削钛合金时,无黏结相硬质合金刀具前刀面无明显磨损,后刀面只有边界磨损,YG8刀具发生崩刃,前刀面出现切屑的滞留。     

A New Slip-Line Field Modeling of Orthogonal Machining with a Rounded-Edge Worn Cutting Tool

In this study, a new slip-line field model and its associated hodograph for orthogonal cutting with a rounded-edge worn cutting tool are developed using Dewhurst and Collins's matrix technique. The new model considers the existence of dead metal zone in front of the rounded-edge worn cutting tool. The ploughing force and friction force occurred due to flank wear land, chip up-curl radius, chip thickness, primary shear zone thickness and length of bottom side of the dead metal zone are obtained by solving the model depending on the experimental resultant force data. The effects of flank wear rate, cutting edge radius, uncut chip thickness, cutting speed and rake angle on these outputs are specified.     

Ti-6Al-4V合金激光辅助铣削的刀具磨损特性

对激光辅助铣削钛合金Ti-6Al-4V进行了实验研究,分析了切削力、切屑形貌和刀具的磨损特性。结果表明,与普通铣削相比,激光辅助铣削条件下,刀具切向的切削力明显减小,刀具径向的切削力略有增大;随着激光功率的增大,钛合金切屑呈现出从锯齿形向连续形过渡的特征,不再具有明显的绝热剪切带;与普通铣削时刀具崩刃的损伤不同,激光辅助铣削时刀具的磨损主要表现为后刀面磨损;激光辅助铣削可以减小后刀面的最大磨损量,但并不能改善后刀面平均磨损量。激光辅助铣削时,刀具寿命得到了延长,当后刀面的平均磨损量在0.15~0.20mm之间时,可以降低刀具的磨损速度,从而延长刀具的使用寿命,但激光辅助铣削并不能降低刀具的初期磨损速度。     

Experimental assessment of textured tools with nano-lubricants in orthogonal cutting of titanium alloy

In this study, we investigated the effects of composite nano-Cu/WS₂ lubricating oil and single-point diamond indentation-textures on improving the cutting performance of YG8 cemented carbide tools, which is crucial for textures tool applications. The aims of the study were to improve wear resistance and reduce chip adhesion at the tool’s rake face in cutting of titanium alloys. Dot textures with different spacings were fabricated on the surface of YG8 cemented carbide tools through the single-point diamond indentation method, and composite nano-Cu/WS₂ lubricating oil was prepared. Orthogonal cutting tests were carried out under dry cutting and minimal quantity lubricated (MQL) conditions. Investigate the effect of different texture spacing on the cutting performance in the light of cutting forces, friction coefficient, the deformed chip thickness, tool adhesions, and chip morphology. The results show that the dot texture effectively improved the lubrication conditions in machining titanium alloys under the MQL conditions. The dot texture is effective at low speed in the dry cutting conditions. With the increase of cutting speed, the friction coefficient of dot texture tool is affected by texture spacing, and the friction coefficient of DT-200 tool is the smallest. In addition, composite nano Cu/WS₂ lubricating oil forms a lubricating film on the wear path by atomizing the lubricating oil and stores it in the dot texture, which enhances the anti-wear performance in the cutting process and reduces the cutting force and friction coefficient at the tool chip interface. By evaluating cutting force, friction coefficient, chip and tool morphology, it is concluded that DT-100 tool is more effective in improving lubrication conditions.

     

Wear characteristics of cemented carbide tool in dry-machining Ti-6Al-4V

In machining titanium alloys, due to the low thermal conductivity and high chemical activity of titanium alloys, tool wear is serious and processing efficiency is very low. To avoid the effects of impurities, which were brought by the cutting fluid, the uncoated cemented carbide tool (WC-Co), which was suitable for cutting titanium alloys, was used for the experiments of dry-turning titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V. A scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS) was used to analyze tool wear mechanism. Based on analyzing the friction characteristic of tool–chip interface, tool wear mechanism was also studied and a physical evolution model of tool wear was established. The results showed that there existed serious adhesion, diffusion and oxidation at tool–chip interface and increasing cutting speed accelerated their occurrence. The physical evolution of tool wear behavior can reflect the loss process of tool material very well.     

Cutting performance of nano-crystalline diamond (NCD) coating in micro-milling of Ti6Al4V alloy

Hard coatings are an important factor affecting the cutting performance of tools. In particular, they directly affect tool life, cutting forces, surface quality and burr formation in the micro-milling process. In this study, the performance of nano-crystalline diamond (NCD) coated tools was evaluated by comparing it with TiN-coated, AlCrN-coated and uncoated carbide tools in micro-milling of Ti₆Al₄V alloy. A series of micro-milling tests was carried out to determine the effects of coating type and machining conditions on tool wear, cutting force, surface roughness and burr size. Flat end-mill tools with two flutes and a diameter of 0.5 mm were used in the micro-milling process. The minimum chip thickness depending on both the cutting force and the surface roughness were determined. The results showed that the minimum chip thickness is about 0.3 times that of the cutter corner radius for Ti₆Al₄V alloy and changes very little with coating type. It was observed from wear tests that the dominant wear mechanism was abrasion. Maximum wear occurred on NCD-coated and uncoated tools. In addition, maximum burr size was obtained in the cutting process with the uncoated tool.     

Effect of the third-body particles on the tool–chip contact and tool-wear behaviour during dry cutting of aeronautical titanium alloys

In machining process, a major limitation of the tool life is due to wear phenomena that occur at the tool–chip interface. Wear influences the surface quality and dimensional accuracy of the finished product by degrading the shape and efficiency of the tool cutting edge. The basic mechanisms of wear are controlled by the mechanical and physico-chemical properties of the tool and workpiece materials. The cutting conditions such as the cutting speed, the feed rate, and the tool geometry also have an important effect on the tool-wear behaviour. Several basic causes of tool wear have been previously investigated; some of the most important are: abrasion and adhesion wear. During the chip formation, particles are removed from the tool and/or the chip surface and are carried away by the flow of the work material along the contact. It is very hard to understand physical phenomena at the tool–chip interface using only experimental means since the contact between the tool and the machined material occurs under extreme mechanical and thermal loading. The situation is more complicated by the presence of the third body, which generates different wear mechanisms.In the present work, the discrete element method (DEM) based on molecular dynamics is used as a helpful tool to understand the behaviour of the third-body particles and their interactions with the tool and workpiece materials in the contact. Both tool and chip materials are defined as discrete particles connected by solid joints. The tool material (first body) is assumed to be degradable granular material and flows along the second material under a combination of pressure and sliding velocity. A parametric study on the transient phenomenon of the tool degradation has been carried out according to the contact conditions, which strongly depend on the machining parameters. The results show that the tribological parameters can be qualitatively evaluated by conducting both calibration–cutting experiments and DEM simulations.     

The effect of cutting parameters and cutting tools on machining performance of carbon graphite material

Abstract

The present study focuses on the effects of cutting speed, feed rate and cutting tool material on the machining performance of carbon graphite material. Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) cutting tools are used in machining experiments and its performance is compared with the tungsten carbide (WC) and Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) tools. Machining performance criteria such as flank and nose wear and resulting surface topography and roughness of machined parts were studied. This study illustrates that feed rate and cutting tool material play a dominant role in the progressive wear of the cutting tool. The highest feed rate and cutting speed profoundly reduce the tool wear progression. The surface roughness and topography of specimens are remarkably influenced from the tool wear. Major differences are found in the wear mechanisms of PCD and WC and CBN cutting tools.     

Cutting forces, chip formation, and tool wear in high-speed face milling of AISI H13 steel with CBN tools

High-speed face milling experiments of AISI H13 steel (46–47 HRC) with cubic boron nitride (CBN) tools were conducted in order to identify the characteristics of cutting forces, chip formation, and tool wear in a wide range of cutting speed (200–1,200 m/min). The velocity effects are focused on in the present study. It was found that, at the cutting speed of 800 m/min, which can be considered as a critical value, relatively low mechanical load, relatively low degree of chip segmentation, and relatively long tool life can be obtained at the same time. Both the cutting forces and the degree of chip segmentation firstly decrease and then increase with the cutting speed, while the tool life exhibits the opposite trend. By means of analyzing the wear mechanisms of tools tested under different cutting speeds, it was found that, as the cutting speed increases, the influences of fracture and chipping resulting from mechanical load on tool wear were reduced, while the influences of adhesion, oxidation, and thermal crack accelerated by high cutting temperature became greater. There exist obvious correlations among cutting forces, chip formation, and tool wear.     

PCBN刀具切削高温合金锯齿形切屑形成机理

高温合金被广泛的应用于航空航天工业中,它是一种典型的难加工材料,切削过程刀具磨损严重。PCBN刀具作为一种超硬刀具材料在加工高温合金方面具有较大潜能,但由于PCBN刀具没有断屑槽,故断屑困难。因此研究切削参数以及刀具磨损对切屑形成的影响规律对推进PCBN刀具的应用具有重要的意义。通过试验研究切削参数和刀具磨损对切削力、切屑宏观状态和切屑微观参数(切屑剪切角、切屑厚度、齿高和齿间角)的影响规律。试验结果表明:当切削速度为97 m/min,切削深度为0.1 mm,进给量为0.14 mm/r时,切屑的宏观状态最佳。并根据试验结果,确定了绝热剪切带的位置和两个切屑锯齿形成的关系,进而建立了PCBN刀具切削高温合金GH4169的锯齿形切屑的形成机理模型:当刀具运动到某一点开始出现绝热剪切带,继续运动到下一点,形成一个锯齿,继续运动将出现下一个剪切失稳。